Book Reviews

LeadershipNext: Changing Leaders in a Changing Culture

by William Sloos

Aiming to guide current and emerging church leaders within the rapidly changing post-modern context, LeadershipNext: Changing Leaders in a Changing Culture is an insightful resource that maps out how Christian leadership must adapt to the new cultural realities of the twenty-first century. Written by Eddie Gibbs, Senior Professor of Church Growth at Fuller Theological Seminary, the book not only identifies the immense changes occurring in society and calls the church to transformation, but also provides practical instruction for meaningful and authentic ministry within the present generation.

Arguing that traditional leadership styles must change or risk becoming irrelevant to the culture, Gibbs exhorts church leaders to interpret the times and be willing to redefine leadership towards a missional and kingdom-embracing theology. He opens the book by identifying trends that are leading to the demise of the traditional church, such as the decline in the church going population (including the alarming rate of under thirty-five year olds that no longer attend church), the weakening of denominational structures, and the inadequate number of seminary-trained leaders to replace aging clergy. In response to these trends and the immense changes occurring in society, chapter one identifies successful church leaders as those who are able to discern the times and respond in prompt and appropriate ways. Chapter two argues that, despite the ambiguity and unpredictability of the current age, the realignment of ecclesiastical leadership roles and styles is necessary to engage the broader culture. Embracing a “retro-future” methodology, that is, looking at future trends and also at the paradigm of the early church, chapter three examines the mandate of the Great Commission and its indivisible relationship to the missional understanding of the church. Turning his attention to leadership structures, chapters four and five discuss how the hierarchy of the traditional church must give way to a more decentralized leadership style that functions more as a team that includes both paid staff and volunteer leaders. Chapters six through eight concentrate on the leadership qualities that are being modelled by the emerging generation of church leaders that have embraced the team oriented approach to ministry. Unwilling to sidestep the challenges of team ministry in the post-modern context, chapter nine candidly addresses some of the personal costs associated with the risk of presenting the gospel message in a style unfamiliar to the traditional paradigm. In the final chapter, Gibbs calls for change in the way new leaders are identified and equipped and suggests a new educational model that combines theological training with practical ministry in a context that enables and empowers emerging leaders for meaningful, long-term ministry that embraces a holistic and missional ecclesiology.

Analysis

Consistently weaved throughout the book, Gibbs addresses the concept of discipleship in contemporary Western Christianity. Arguing that the church has a misguided understanding of the biblical concept of discipleship, Gibbs explains how people are brought to a point of decision for Christ but are often neglected in their emerging journey of faith and are subsequently stunted in their spiritual growth following their salvation. He writes, “Western churches suffer from a chronic problem of undiscipled church members, an environment that serves as the perfect breeding ground for nominal Christianity” (79). Examining the early church, he notes that in the first three centuries, the emphasis was not on going to church, but on being the church, being the “called out ones” (79). Opposed to a building or an institution, the original intention of the church is to be a body where one belongs, is built up in the faith, and equipped for ministry (80).

Gibbs asserts that the discipleship-making process has been neglected because of a flawed interpretation of the biblical mandate of the church (70). He argues that the church has somehow embraced the notion that there are two distinct mandates for the church: the “cultural” mandate to love neighbours and the “evangelistic” mandate to preach the gospel. This distinction between biblical directives has created a dysfunctional ministry practice that has deceived people into thinking that their Christological mission is to merely love one another and witness to the lost, altogether abandoning the call of discipleship that is so clearly demonstrated throughout Matthew’s Gospel (80). The church has failed to turn decisions for Christ into disciples of Christ and, in doing so, has fashioned a gospel of convenience and entertainment that does little to produce Christ-likeness, life transformation, and Spirit-empowerment. According to the Gospel of Matthew, Gibbs stresses that the Great Commission is not merely about presenting the gospel to bring people to a point of decision, but is also about journeying together along the path of discipleship. When the church re-establishes the priority of discipleship and begins to develop people who are wholly committed to following Christ in every area of life and are actively engaged in the local and global vision of Christ’s reign, the mission of the church will be repositioned to penetrate the culture with the love of Christ (89).

Convinced that the renewal of discipleship is a significant component of the future growth and health of the church, Gibbs candidly discusses the costs that emerging leaders will encounter if they embrace the leadership model of discipleship in their own ministry contexts. Since the kingdom of God is not based on a hierarchical structure that functions from a position of authority, but rather on servant leadership exemplified in Christ, church leaders who follow the example of Christ will discover that leadership is “more about scars than stars” (180). If emerging leaders are willing to follow Christ and not be bound by the conservative voices within the traditional church, they will need to take risks when starting new faith communities or leading new movements. If leading traditional churches, the temptation to maintain the status quo or “ghetto mindset” must be resisted in favour of stepping out into uncharted territory for the sake of the kingdom of God. The challenges can be overwhelming and can include: opposition to change and new ideas, criticism, enduring loneliness, competing priorities, setbacks, decision-making pressures, limited resources, high leadership turnover, physical and emotional weariness, and the fear of personal or shared failure (194). The costs of following Christ can be high, but wise leaders can find success by keeping their focus on the vision of the kingdom of God.

Having spent five years of ministry leading a traditional congregation in need of revitalization and renewal, I find Gibbs’ evaluation of the costs associated with risk-taking leadership accurate. Within my previous context, despite the awareness among congregants that the church was disconnected from the surrounding culture and required substantial transformation, implementing change was a painful process that required patience and perseverance. Developing a mission and vision, reorienting the budget and finances towards missional objectives, modernizing and streamlining infrastructure, renewing the worship experience, and launching and completing a comprehensive building program were all components that contributed to the necessary changes, but it came at a significant personal cost. Despite the sacrifices and challenges however, the congregation tangibly experienced the faithfulness of God on numerous occasions and were eventually better positioned to reconnect with their community with the message of the gospel. Unquestionably, there are costs to fulfilling the mandate of the call of God and the results are never guaranteed; Gibbs’ honest assessment of the costs of risk-taking leadership is a valuable contribution to the study of ministry in the post-modern context and can assist emerging leaders in preparing for the challenges associated with leading a kingdom-embracing movement of transformation.

Quotable Quote

When a community or movement is more than ten years old, new pastors should expect to pay a price in terms of resistance or intransigence because in that amount of time institutional norms become increasingly entrenched. It is sobering to reflect that the most conservative institutions in the church today began as radical movements in their inception. Yesterday’s radical leaders become today’s conservatives who are seldom prepared to pay the high price of innovation a second time around (184).

Practioners: Voices within the Emerging Church

by William Sloos

Consisting of a compilation of essays, dialogues, and monologues, Practitioners: Voices Within the Emerging Church, is a thought-provoking examination of post-modern ecclesiology by a diverse group of forward-looking leaders within the emerging church. Recognizing the immense change taking place in contemporary Western culture, these practitioners discuss their concerns with the traditional church, reflect on the Scriptures, reassess spirituality, and contemplate a variety of innovative ideas that facilitate genuine spiritual formation and social transformation in the post-modern setting. Convinced that the present church must be willing to change to remain relevant to the culture, the book explores alternative methods of relating the gospel to people in a variety of contexts. Unquestionably passionate, real, honest, and at times, controversial and offensive, the nine authors believe the church must embrace a new missiology that is centred on authentic, loving relationships with all people, regardless of socio-economic status, race, or sexual orientation.

Chapter one, written by Greg Russinger, lead “missionary” at The Bridges Community, an alternative church affiliated with The Foursquare Church, sets the standard for the book by exploring the life of Christ to discover how the church can embrace his redemptive mission in the world. Believing that Jesus’ ministry primarily took place within community, Russinger explores what the church could look like if it reflected the relational and communal heart of Christ. Rather than being confined by the moral judgment systems of others or inflexible church polity, Russinger envisions a missiology that is lived out according to the “rhythms of hospitality,” where people are welcomed into a loving and caring relationship that personally introduces them to the transformative power of Christ and the cross.

The following chapters expand on the notion of living according to the missional heart of Christ and present a vast assortment of ideas, thoughts, and visions for the future of the church. Chapter two focuses on reviving the sacrament of prayer that combines the transformative practice of intercession and social action. Chapters three and four explore the use of storytelling, media, and the visual arts as a means of communicating the gospel and expressing worship to God. Chapter five wrestles with the concept of what it means to be a “missional people” and how petty religiosity within the traditional church is often a barrier to the journey of discipleship modelled by Chris. Building on the idea of missional living, chapter six explores the role of justice in the life a Christ-follower and asserts that caring for the poor is not an option, but is rather an essential function of every believer who wishes to reflect the message of the gospel. The following three chapters of the book take a closer look at the future of the church, its leaders, and its followers, and provide a series of conversation starters that examine how the emerging generation thinks about God and how the church can penetrate the culture through creativity, imagination, and in “rhythmic harmony with God.” Closing out the book, the final chapter contains a series of journal entries from an urban missionary in London, England, who engages his community through “incarnational” living- being Jesus to the poor, hurting, abused, and disenfranchised.

Analysis

Endeavouring to be defined by the simplicity of living for Christ, another author and post-modern practitioner, Pete Greig, contends that there are three areas that every leader must address to be truly missional (147-8). First, every leader must focus on the fruitfulness of their private spirituality. According to Greig, there are many church leaders who speak a lot about God, criticize the traditional church, or identify what they perceive to be the needs of the current culture, but have little personal passion for God. Second, every leader must engage with those who are marginalized by society. When leaders define themselves outside of the poor, the oppressed, and those who do not share similar worldviews, Greig suggests they are unable to find true revelation and the true authority in Christ. Connecting with others who are not Christians or those outside of the common social stratum reshapes theology and influences the way ministry is understood. Third, every leader must live in community. Greig contends that many academic people consider themselves specialists on issues related to postmodernity and the church but actually live highly individualized lives. Without living in community, it is impossible to model the redemptive heart of Christ to others. For those practitioners wishing to lead truly missional lives according to the pattern of Jesus, every person needs to be living at the juxtaposition of these three things.

Building on the idea of what it means to be missional, Canadian church leader and equipper Joyce Heron proposes that the church needs to reassess its ministry of mercy or what she calls “Christian tourism in poor neighbourhoods” (154-157). She describes how justice is often relegated to a department of a church, but rejects such a narrow perception and suggests justice should be the function of every believer. Emphasizing that there are over four hundred references to meeting the needs of the poor and oppressed in the Scriptures, Heron concludes that “God has an absolutely massive bias toward the poor, and that as one of his followers, I’m supposed to manifest that same bias” (155). Rather than merely setting up church programs or popping in and out of the lives of the poor, which only perpetuates the “us and them” dynamic, to see real community transformation, the church must actually become friends with people who are marginalized. She contends that the church will never see the poor as people until they build authentic long-term relationships with them and personally share in the change Jesus makes in their lives.

Undoubtedly, the practitioners who endorse this concept of the missional church that is centred upon spiritual formation and community transformation also have some challenging comments about the traditional church. Although many express a desire to bridge the modern church with post-modern ideas or, at least, “take the best of the modern” and move on, one practitioner contends that the traditional church has debilitated believers by telling them what to think rather than how to think on a variety of levels (247). Doug Pagitt, pastor of Solomon’s Porch, a holistic, missional community in Minneapolis, Minnesota, argues that preaching does not work in the post-modern context because it creates the wrong socialization construct (186). He states, “the act of one person telling a bunch of other people how life is supposed to go” is essentially a flawed mechanism because it ignores the importance of dialogue within the community. Additionally, the theological concept of ordination, that one person is distinct from the rest of the people, is an enormous problem in the post-modern context (193). Rather than having one person with the “power,” leadership should emerge through different people at different times. As well, traditional churches have been told they need to have a mission/vision statement that defines who they are and what they do (180). Doing so confines them to a particular obligation when the church should be constantly making room for the purposes of God. Too many churches are concerned with having the right mission statement; instead, they should be regularly discerning the Spirit and asking, “What is the agenda of God and how are we uniquely postured to join into it?” (180). Other existing concerns with the traditional church model identified in the book include the problem of spiritual performance and professionalism, religiosity without missionality, promoting a self-centred faith built on personal convenience, and the unbiblical “weird subculture, ghetto thing” that pervades the traditional church culture (136).

Despite the abrasive tinge to some of the comments about the traditional church, the emerging church practitioners have correctly identified some very critical issues facing the traditional church. Not only are the traditional methodologies no longer viable in the current cultural context, but it also seems that the traditional church has strayed from its essential Christological mission. A religious subculture has evolved that includes its own embedded patterns of activity, language, and symbolic structures that support its activities with value and importance. Within this sub-culture, the church has spent an excessive amount of resources servicing its own people and facilitating ministries that have little or nothing to do with penetrating the surrounding community. Evangelism is rarely about engaging in authentic relationships with unbelievers, but is rather focussed on promoting a program in the hope that outsiders may attend and eventually incorporate the conventional belief systems of the faith community. The missional concept of genuinely befriending the poor or oppressed is rare, highlighting how fortified the common social circles are among traditional believers. Given these concerns, the traditional church is need of revival, but not a revival based upon a fleeting ecstatic experience which the church continues to regard as the pinnacle of spirituality, but rather a revival of the eternal mission of Christ to enter into the world of lost and broken people with the message of liberation and reconciliation. Clearly not everyone is able to have an inner-city ministry like Joyce Heron, but through the gifts and power of the Holy Spirit, believers can move beyond their familiar and safe surroundings and egocentric worldviews and enter into an unpredictable and often uncomfortable environment where the poor, oppressed, and hurting people can be introduced to the living Christ.

Quotable Quote (94)

“Fundamentally, we are at a crossroads in the Church at a massive level, and culturally we would call it postmodernism. It’s essentially the idea of deconstructing, unpacking and reworking. It happened to literature and literary criticism in the 1940s and 1950s and is still happening; it started in our culture in the 1960s and continues; it began in business in the 1980s; and its finally happening in the Church after the year 2000.”

Apostles and Prophets: The Foundation of the Church by Peter C. Wagner

by William Sloos

In Peter C. Wagner’s book, Apostles and Prophets: The Foundation of the Church, he argues that Christ intended the church to be built on the foundation of the apostles and prophets according to Ephesians 2:19-20.  He believes that the New Testament endorses the concept that the apostle and prophet are not simply spiritual gifts that function in the body of Christ, but are governmental positions or “offices” that should be strategically operating in positions of ecclesiastical authority.  He notes that, even though the church has embraced the office of pastor, teacher, and evangelist, it has yet to submit to the leadership of the apostle and prophet, leaving the church disempowered and disengaged from its divinely appointment mandate.  Wagner suggests that when the church decides to come under the intended authority of the apostle and prophet, it will experience a new level of influence in the world and a greater degree of power and blessing through the Holy Spirit.

Wagner indicates that the office of the prophet began to emerge in the 1980’s, even though it was largely isolated from mainstream evangelical Christianity.  Though the majority of church leaders rejected the prophetic office, believing that there were no new revelations other than the Bible, the movement continued to develop and, according to Wagner, is now powerfully influencing churches around the globe.  He notes that the function of the prophet, similar to that of the Old Testament prophet, is to receive God’s divine revelation or “rhema word” and boldly declare it to the church.  The author also argues that the office of the prophet is not only Biblical, but when “hitched” to the office of the apostle, is essential in fulfilling Christ’s design for church governance.

In the 1990’s, the office of the apostle emerged in some evangelical circles and, though not as controversial as the prophetic office, is creating a shift in the orthodoxy and praxis of traditional church government.  Instead of working within the parameters of the traditional church governance model, such as Congregational or Presbyterian, the office of the apostle functions on a new level of authority, placing ultimate decision making ability on the individual as opposed to the congregation or committee.  The apostle in this position receives a greater amount of spiritual authority from the Holy Spirit, providing a completely new level of spiritual authority to the church.  Akin to the ministry of the apostle Paul, Wagner suggests that apostles operate within a sphere of influence over a specific network of churches or church leaders.  Apostles also receive divine revelation, either directly from God or through their connection with the prophetic office, which provides spiritual guidance and instruction to their specific sphere of ministry. 

Reflection

Wagner has christened this new system of church government as the “New Apostolic Reformation” and has confidently claimed it will completely revolutionize the church.  This movement has become what Wagner calls, “an extraordinary work of God” that is “changing the shape of Protestant Christianity around the world”.  He even goes as far as saying that this development, “could possibly be an even more radical change than the [Protestant] Reformation”.  However, drawing parallels to the Protestant Reformation seems not only premature, but also terribly overconfident and, instead of providing sound biblical exegesis to support his claims, he prefers to lean heavily on his reputation and expound on his own experiences and ideas.

Wagner’s concepts are based on a skewed hermeneutic that suggests that the church remains in a state of incompleteness until the offices of apostle and prophet are restored.  The idea that the church is incomplete without the apostles and prophets inherently diminishes the sufficiency of Scripture and the authority of Christ.  The office of the prophet diminishes the significance of the Word.  Why would a believer search the Scriptures when they can visit the prophet and receive a personal message from God?  The office of the apostle, which confers someone with divine authority, diminishes the need for every believer to pursue Christ.  Why would a believer pray and seek the Lord when they can simply obey the directives of the apostle?  This proposal leads to extremes: it increases the office holder and decreases Jesus.  The church must continue to find divine truth exclusively in the Word of God and all find authority in the person of Jesus Christ; promoting ideas that suggest otherwise has the ability to opens doors to spiritual abuse, heresy, and cultic activity.

Wagner himself seems to fall prey to some strange, prophetically directed behavior that most mature believers would strongly discourage.  In 1998, upon receiving a prophecy from an associate about an upcoming stock market fluctuation, he openly admits to moving around his retirement funds and, in doing so, making the “equivalent of a generous year’s salary”.  Though his maneuver turned out to be a good financial decision, it implies that one can seek prophetic messages for a variety of matters including personal gain.  This behaviour resembles the common practices of psychics and mediums, who help people with everything from love to lottery tickets.  The biblical gift of prophecy, according to Paul in 1 Corinthians, was not for any other reason but for the up building, encouragement, and comfort of the church.  Wagner’s apparent liberal treatment this gift is clearly outside the parameters of biblical teaching and is reason enough to reject it completely.

In the concluding chapters of the book, Wagner relates the poignant story of John Wimber and his relationship with the Kansas City prophets.  Though Wimber originally embraced the prophetic movement and promoted the ministry within the Vineyard churches, he was later disappointed by a prophecy regarding an upcoming revival in England that turned out to be false.  He later admitted that the prophetic movement derailed the progress of the Vineyard movement and was evidently deeply hurt and disillusioned by the unrealized prophecy.  In spite of this embarrassing debacle, Wagner remains a strong believer in the prophetic movement and naively believes that the movement simply requires the apostolic relationship to bring structure and accountability.  He fails to recognize the grief this has caused, not only for a colleague, but also for the Vineyard fellowship.  It is also bizarre that after spending most of the book promoting the apostolic-prophetic movement, he would end his book with an example of its profound failure.

There is no doubt that the apostle-prophet church government system could appear attractive to many church leaders today.  The church is urgently seeking a ministry or program that will launch the next great revival before the second coming of Christ.  Church leaders are tired of the sluggishness of the democratic process and committee meeting after committee meeting; most pastors genuinely desire a move of the Holy Spirit and long to see the restoration of the New Testament church in their current context.  However, the Scriptures repeatedly warn the church to be on their guard against false teachers and false teaching.  This “New Apostolic Reformation” may appear like the key that unlocks the door to revival, yet it would not be the first time the church is deceived by well-intentioned people.  The church must continue to stand firm on the sufficiency of Scripture and the authority of Christ and resist the temptation to grant ecclesiastic authority to those who claim the status of apostle or prophet, regardless of their spiritual giftedness or passion for God.

The Bible and Healing: A Medical and Theological Commentary by John Wilkinson

by William Sloos

John Wilkinson’s monograph, The Bible and Healing: A Medical and Theological Commentary, is a comprehensive examination of the references to health and healing found throughout the biblical text, with an emphasis on both the medical and theological perspective.  Beginning in the Old Testament, he systematically explores the indigenous concept of health, assesses diseases, and reviews the healing practices of the ancient community of Israel.  In the Gospels, disease and healing are analyzed with the focus on the distinctive healing ministry of Christ, followed by the record of healing in the Apostolic Church.  Drawing special attention to Paul’s thorn in the flesh, the author offers insights as to its possible identity, proposing its cause was likely malaria- a common and frequently debilitating disease that would correspond with the description given by Paul in 2 Corinthians 12:7-10.  The author concludes with a brief history of healing in modern times and provides a proper biblical framework for the theology and practice of healing in the contemporary church.  With this summary in mind, this reflection paper will interact with three major issues within the book: 1) the broad definition of health in the biblical text, 2) a Pauline theology of suffering, and 3) the interpretation of the use of anointing oil and its implications for the contemporary church.  A final paragraph will be included that will highlight several issues that were not included in the book which require further exploration.

First, upon review of the definition of health in the biblical text, Wilkinson has uncovered its multi-dimensional scope that goes beyond merely the physical and encompasses a broad spectrum of components.  In the Old Testament, the definition of health covers well-being, righteousness, obedience, strength, fertility, and longevity.  The New Testament adds to the range of understanding by including health as life, blessedness, holiness, and maturity.  Concerned with more than the material or bodily function of humankind, the Bible’s vision of health expands to embrace the soul and spirit with an intentional emphasis on the divine-human relationship.  Weaved throughout the text, this comprehensive portrait of health pervades every area of human life and is ultimately measured by the standard of the fullness of Christ.

Wilkinson highlights the word σωτηρία, a noun meaning “the condition of being safe and sound” to expresses the wide-ranging concept of health in the Bible (25).  Used throughout the Old Testament in reference to deliverance, the word came to have a rich religious application, not only for the nation of Israel, but also for the individual believer who trusted in God for deliverance from their enemies.  In the gospels, the verb σώζω, is also used to denote both healing and deliverance, not only from danger or disease, but more importantly from the scourge of sin.  Pauline literature also used the word σωτηρία, to reflect the salvific act of Christ in response to the sinful state of humankind, intertwining the physical and spiritual aspects of health and wholeness.  This diverse interpretation of the word throughout the biblical text implies that, theologically speaking, health and salvation are inseparable and affect the whole human being, demonstrating the holistic mission of Christ not only to deliver the soul from spiritual death, but extend health and wholeness to human beings living in the present age (25).

Second, Paul’s thorn in the flesh experience provides a thoroughly biblical model for dealing with issues relating to suffering.  According to Wilkinson, Paul understood that his affliction had a meaning deeper than the merely physical or pathological (232).  After being denied the repeated request for the thorn to be removed, the apostle experienced the providential and compassionate nature of God in the midst of suffering.  Though Paul’s illness was supplied by Satan, God kept Satan on a tight leash, never allowing the disease to permanently cripple him, but only to operate periodically as required.  As well, the affliction provided a means for sustaining grace in the midst of human weakness, enabling Paul to boast, not in his own accomplishments, but in the power of God.  As Wilkinson suggests, Paul’s experience with the thorn in the flesh enables the believer to understand the deeper meaning of suffering in their own life, knowing that their suffering is not an accident or outside the purposes of God, but can instead become a source of spiritual strength (235).

Third, as a Pentecostal pastor who has regularly used anointing oil in healing services, Wilkinson’s exegetical study of James 5:13-18 is very interesting to me.  According to the text, when the elders were called in by the sick person they were to anoint them with oil and pray for their healing.  The author argues that this custom was essentially referring to the medicinal use of the oil rather than the religious one and proposes that James had no intention of connecting the anointing with oil to anything more than as a medicinal remedy (249).  For James, anointing oil served as a two-pronged approach to healing, spiritually through the prayer of faith and medically through the application of olive oil.  Since olive oil has little medicinal benefit in the current Western context, this claim renders its use in the contemporary healing service as a meaningless practice.  In my experience however, many Pentecostals would agree that the use of olive oil is not for any medicinal use, but is highly valued as a symbol of the presence of God and remains a cherished tradition in the Pentecostal context.

Many Pentecostal believers, as I have discovered, draw a link between James’ instruction to anoint with oil to the Old Testament use of anointing oil as a symbol of God’s special presence and favour.  In the desert wanderings, Moses was instructed to make anointing oil for the purpose of sanctifying its applicants as holy to the Lord.  Though the substance Moses concocted was somewhat different than common anointing oil, the sacramental value and meaning behind the substance is comparable.  Wilkinson contends that viewing anointing with oil as a sacrament is faulty since it implies that God is not present in cases of praying for the sick where oil is not present.  It is arguable however, that anointing oil serves in the healing service just as bread and grape juice serve in the communion service- as visible symbols that aid in faith.  The majority of believers likely recognize that God is present at a prayer meeting whether anointing oil is used or not and also understand that anointing oil does not contain any magical remedy, but stands as a symbol that functions as a tangible faith-builder, connecting the miracle-working power of God in the ancient community of Israel to the contemporary community of faith.

On the other hand, Wilkinson’s understanding of James’ instruction to anoint the sick with oil as merely a medical treatment has considerable implications for the Pentecostal concept of healing.  Over the years, I have witnessed many sincere Pentecostal believers who, when facing illness, especially mental illness, have chosen not to seek medical help but to simply trust God for their healing.  Unfortunately, this has resulted in many people going untreated for very treatable conditions and has caused needless suffering.  If the author is correct, James’ theology of healing fully embraces the spiritual as well as the medical, implying that Christians, in addition to prayer, should also seek medical means to treat their illnesses.  This interpretation would be illuminating for many believers who feel they lack faith by taking medication or visiting their doctor.  Helping people of faith to recognize the biblical affirmation of medical treatment would be a positive step in the Pentecostal tradition, lifting the stigma of perceived faithlessness and enabling people to confidently secure help for their physical needs.

Finally, Wilkinson’s book raises several questions that could have been dealt with at greater depth.  First, when the disciples were unable to heal the epileptic boy, Jesus responds to the disciples by stating, “This kind goeth not out but by prayer and fasting” (Mt. 17:21 KJV).  Though more recent manuscripts have cast some doubt as to the inclusion of the word “fasting”, is there a relationship between healing and fasting in this particular case or in the general praxis of healing?  Second, in Luke 4:39, Jesus finds Peter’s mother-in-law sick with a fever and he rebukes the fever, or speaks to the illness.  Since there is no reference to demonic influence, can an illness be spoken to as a living thing and is “speaking to the illness” a suggested method of praying for a sick person?  Third, there are many passages in the gospels that proclaim an unqualified nature of faith when it comes to prayer, such as “whatever things you ask in prayer, believing, you will receive” (Mt. 21:22 KJV).  In my experience, these verses and other similar verses confuse the understanding of the tension between healing and suffering and require further explanation as to how to treat these passages when someone is not healed of their illness.  Last, the passage in Isaiah 53:5 which states, “And by His stripes we are healed”, has been often linked to physical healing, however is this connection theologically valid and is there an association between “His stripes” and the healing power of Christ?  Nonetheless, Wilkinson’s book is an excellent theological handbook for the contemporary church, providing an important resource for constructing a proper theology of health and healing.

The Devil, Disease, and Deliverance: The Origins of Illness in New Testament Thought by John C. Thomas

by William Sloos

John C. Thomas’ book, The Devil, Disease and Deliverance: Origins of Illness in New Testament Thought, explores the sources of affliction in the biblical text and forges a proper biblical theology of sickness and disease by examining actual cases in the New Testament narratives.  Allowing the gospel and epistle writers to speak on their own terms, Thomas performs a thorough literary analysis, probing the text from multiple angles and offering thought-provoking insights.  Recognizing the popularity of healing and deliverance within Pentecostal/charismatic circles, the author seeks to reduce the confusion and bring a measure of clarity to a rather controversial topic.  Beginning with James’ epistle, Thomas discusses the roles confession and anointing oil have in praying for the sick.  In the Pauline and Johannine corpora, the origin of infirmity is identified as either from God, the devil, or natural causes- a consistent theme weaved throughout the book.  The synoptic gospels provide deeper analysis of the link between infirmity and demon possession and explore the practice of exorcism.  The book concludes by framing a biblical approach to illness and suggests how prayer, discernment, confession, exorcism and medication are all means of healing and recovery.  With this summary in mind, this reflection paper will interact with three major issues in the book: 1) divine origin of affliction, 2) the challenge of discerning demonic influence and, 3) the importance of discernment with regards to identifying sources of infirmity, concluding with a brief paragraph of some unanswered questions.

First, Thomas’ portrayal of God being a source of infirmity and even death in the New Testament is an unexpected and illuminating contention regularly emerging throughout the book.  The author collects several pieces of evidence to support his claim including the story of the man born blind from birth (122), Zechariah’s mutism (196), Saul’s loss of sight (258), and Elymas’ blindness (278), with each case clearly identifying God as the cause of the affliction.  What is interesting about this grouping is that each person was afflicted for a different purpose, whether to display the healing power of God, as a response to disobedience, a means to salvation, or to execute punishment.  Additionally, each of these narratives also illustrate the ease with which the biblical writers attributed responsibility to God for the cause of affliction, highlighting a relatively neglected theological concept that God can be the source of infirmity to serve a variety of purposes.  Even more disturbing is the case of Ananias and Sapphira who were struck dead, recipients of God’s judgment for lying to the Holy Spirit (243).  Though Satan is involved in the episode, God is clearly the cause for the severe outcome.  In addition to Ananias and Sapphira, Herod was also struck down for his failure to give God glory, a punitive action culminating in his body being eaten by worms (265).  Herod’s demise, along with the other examples, serves to demonstrate that sin, demonic forces, and natural causes are not the only origins of affliction, but also the hand of God.  In these accounts, God displays his equivalent nature between Old and New Testaments, his impartiality with respect to judgement, and his demand for reverent fear and holiness in the community of faith.

As a Pentecostal pastor however, I believe this concept of God as a possible source of affliction in the life of a believer is a rarely considered notion.  In the current expression of Pentecostal faith, a number of slogans dominate religious thought such as, “God is good, all the time…all the time, God is good” and the frequently cited phrase, “God won’t give me more than I can handle” – a misquotation from 1 Corinthians 10:13.  These and other such messages, which have infiltrated modern theology, propagate a false reality of God, reducing him to mere shadow of his true nature.  The consequences of this flawed vision of God produce a pervasive impertinence within the contemporary church, leading to a general disregard for personal holiness, humility, and authentic worship.  However, if God was a source of affliction in the Old and New Testaments, there is no theological rationale to suggest he would be any different in the contemporary context- a reality that calls for greater reflection by the body of Christ.

Second, Thomas’ research has identified two types of demonic activity that occur in the biblical text, namely demon possession and affliction caused by demonic influence.  There are several well-known pericopae in the gospel accounts that pertain to demon possession, such as the epileptic boy in Mark 9 and the Gadarene Demoniac in Luke 8.  However, affliction caused by demonic influence is considerably more challenging to define.  The account of the stooped woman in Luke 13 sheds some light on the proposition.  After being bound in her infirmity for eighteen years, Jesus finds the woman in the synagogue and heals her (221).  Later in the passage, Jesus identifies Satan as the one responsible for causing her debilitating affliction and, though she was not demon possessed, her condition did stem from demonic influence.  This text provides the clearest evidence of affliction caused by demonic influence, supporting the idea that even a righteous person could be affected by evil sources (226).

However, the difficulty arises in identifying whether the origin of an illness is caused by demonic influence or merely from natural causes.  The author highlights two accounts in the gospels where he suggests the probability of demonic influence, but since there is no explicit indication of demonic influence in the text, I believe the argument is debatable.  First, Jesus finds Peter’s mother-in-law suffering in bed with a great fever and, standing over her, addresses the fever directly and rebukes it from her body (198).  Though there is no explicit evidence in the text to support the idea she was afflicted by demonic power, the author proposes that Jesus’ method of healing, specifically speaking directly to the illness, suggests he was actually addressing demonic forces and not the fever itself.  However, can Jesus’ method of healing not instead demonstrate his authority over nature, including the human body?  By speaking directly to the fever, Jesus proves that he is Creator God and, just as he spoke creation into existence, he is also able to rebuke illnesses by the spoken word.  The second account is found in Luke 8 where Jesus calms the storm by rebuking the wind and the waves (211).  Though the pericopae that bookends this account concerns the deliverance of demons, again there is no explicit evidence to suggest an evil source is behind the storm, as the author implies.  I do not believe Jesus’ verbal command method of healing in both cases suggest the existence of demonic influences, but rather indicate natural causes over which Christ has authority.  Implying that either the fever or the storm might originate from demonic influences when there is no explicit evidence, could invariably detract from the theologically rich depiction of the supremacy of Christ as Lord over nature.

Third, a central theme throughout Thomas’ book is the importance of discernment in identifying sources of affliction.  Since some diseases are attributed to demons but others are not, the gospel writers seem to indicate that discernment was a natural part of the ministry of Christ and is an expected and necessary part of the faith community (189).  The account in Luke 11, where Jesus encounters a man suffering from mutism because of demon possession, serves to illustrate the ability Jesus had to distinguish the source of the infirmity (216).  As earlier noted, mutism was also the affliction of choice employed by God to discipline Zechariah, emphasizing that the source of the affliction cannot be determined simply by how it manifests physically, but must be discerned spiritually.  In the encounter with the man with mutism, Jesus discerns that the affliction did not originate from God, natural causes, or even demonic influence, but was a direct result of demon possession which he subsequently cast out of the man, restoring his speech.  Additionally, Peter discerned the deceptive intentions of Ananias and Sapphira and, because of his actions, protected the integrity of the fledgling church and instilled reverent fear in faith community.  Undoubtedly, just as the gift of discernment was critical to the healing ministry of Christ and the functioning of the apostolic church, the gift of discernment is also essential for the contemporary church, not only to effectively minister to the broad spectrum of needs within the body of Christ but also to protect the church from immoral activity and demonic attacks.

Finally, reading Thomas’ book on the origins of illness in New Testament thought raised some questions for further exploration.  What is the author’s perspective of the nature of the Pool of Bethesda in John 5?  Regarded as a place of healing for the multitudes of afflicted people, the word “Bethesda” has surfaced in modern times and has been widely used in the names of Christian churches and charities.  However, according to the biblical description of the nature of the pool, only the most able-bodied person was cured when the waters were stirred, leaving those in greatest need unhealed.  Does this custom not imply demonic origins and should the Pool of Bethesda be regarded more with a sense of contempt than as a place of healing?  Second, what is the difference between “deliverance” and “exorcism”?  John Wilkinson, in his book The Bible and Healing, states that the verb ἐξορκίζω, meaning “to exorcise” does not occur anywhere in the New Testament, using the word ἐκβάλλω instead, meaning “to drive out”.[1]{C}  What is the reason for this distinction and is it inappropriate to connect the word “exorcism” with the healing ministry of Christ?  Nevertheless, Thomas’ has produced a very insightful and thought-provoking monograph, highlighting the various origins of disease and providing a proper biblical theology for healing in the contemporary context.

Jesus the Miracle Worker: A Historical and Theological Study by Graham H. Twelftree

by William Sloos

In the mid-eighties The Jesus Seminar was formed, consisting of a group of scholars who meet twice a year to search for the historical Jesus.  Their findings, not only published in academic journals but also covered in popular magazines and television news programs, depict a Jesus devoid of the miracle working attributes portrayed in the Gospels.  Their scholarly assessment about the historical Jesus contends that he never cured any diseases, never turned water into wine, did not raise Lazarus from the dead and certainly did not rise from the dead.  Deliberately provocative, The Jesus Seminar drew the battle lines between those who insist the Bible is the only source of religious authority as God’s revelation to humanity and those who consider the traditional conception of miracle irreconcilable with the modern understanding of both science and history.  Within this tempestuous atmosphere, Graham H. Twelftree’s monograph courageously endeavours to help unravel the current issues over the miracles of Jesus, postulating that the vast majority of the miracle stories in the Gospels can be read as reliable reports of those who witnessed the ministry of Jesus.

Jesus The Miracle Worker: A Historical and Theological Study is a significant work (470 pages), covering an important feature of the ministry of the historical Jesus.  Written for the theology student as well as those interested in the issue of the historical Jesus, this book is comprehensive, yet sensibly organized and readable.  Through a combination of exegetical, historical, and theological approaches, the purpose of the monograph is to introduce people to the miracles of Jesus by tackling the following four objectives: 1) to discuss how the Gospel writers understood the miracles of Jesus, 2) to try and determine how Jesus understood his miracles, 3) to see to what extent the miracle stories of Jesus reflect what actually occurred in history, and 4) to examine how the results have impacted the quest of the historical Jesus.  In light of these four objectives, the book divides into five parts.  Part one establishes the major issues and highlights significant contributions to the study of miracles in modern times.  Part two attempts to answer the question, “How did each Gospel writer understand the miracles of Jesus?”  Incisively, Twelftree allows the Gospel narratives to stand on their own, enabling the reader to become familiar with the miracle stories in question and allow the biblical text to speak first and on its own terms.  Part three primarily sets the parameters of historical methodology and grapples with the issue of how Jesus himself may have understood his miracles in relation to his overall ministry.  Having argued that Jesus was a powerful miracle worker, part four puts the biblical evidence to the test of historiography to determine if the miracle stories can be shown to contain any reliable historical probability.  Finally, part five draws some conclusions about the miracles of Jesus in history and makes a valuable contribution to the ongoing quest for the historical Jesus.  The remainder of this review offers a brief overview of Twelftree’s work and an assessment of its strengths and weakness.

The Contents

The first two chapters (Part 1) set the stage for the discussion of Jesus’ miracles by defining what a miracle is and addressing the question of whether miracles did occur and if they occur today.  Twelftree brings to the fore such influential theologians such as David Friedrich Strauss and Rudolph Bultmann who propose that the miracles of Jesus are founded in mythology and essentially have no rightful place in history.  Others argue that the miracle stories have been embellished to portray Jesus as someone worthy of attention; others contend that the Gospel writers actually believed what they were reporting was miraculous, but looking back on the miracles through a scientific lens, can all be explained naturally.  Contrasting the plethora of philosophical, theological, and scientific objectors to the reality of miracles, Twelftree highlights how recent opinion polls in Britain continue to illustrate how the modern person continues to believe in the supernatural.  He concludes by stating that the contemporary scientific worldview, devoid of the supernatural, is not adequate to describe and interpret the breadth of human experience.  Further, the distance between first century and modern human experience is not as great as some believe, making it quite reasonable to suppose that miracles are possible.

Using redaction and narrative criticism to guide his interpretive approach, the next six chapters (Part 2) explore how the Gospel writers regard the miracles of Jesus beginning with Mark, followed by Matthew, Luke, and the Fourth Gospel.  The miracle stories in Mark, accounting for almost one-third of the Gospel- a greater proportion than any other Gospel, are directly related to Jesus’ teaching, his immense popularity, his conflict with evil, his call to faith and prayer, and serve as models for the disciples to emulate.  His miracles are also portrayed as incredibly powerful and effective, leaving the reader with the impression that Jesus could in fact, be God.  In Matthew, the miracles serve to support Jesus’ message of salvation and portray him as the new Moses who fulfils Old Testament hopes as the Messiah in word and deed.  Dominating the Luke-Acts narrative is both the distinctive role of the eschatological Spirit in empowering Jesus to perform miracles and the interrelatedness of healing and salvation, forming a multi-dimensional holistic ministry of Christ.  Unique to the Fourth Gospel is the noticeably sparse reporting of miracle stories, yet despite the small amount of material, the authors express Jesus’ filial relationship with the Father and demonstrate how Jesus’ miracles are at the heart of his earthly ministry.  Concluding that the miracle stories are essential to the Gospel writers’ understanding of the person and work of Christ and are thus likely to have occurred, the author now turns his attention to the historical Jesus and establishes the necessary framework to assess the historicity of the miracle stories.

Chapters nine and ten (Part 3) address the question of whether the historical Jesus actually performed miracles.  Recognizing the capricious nature of the project, Twelftree emotionally prepares the reader by explaining that the journey about to be taken will be like a walk through a minefield.  After appealing for open mindedness, the author reaffirms the value of the venture by noting that the basic understanding of who Jesus is, the truth of his message and the integrity of Christianity depends on Jesus having performed miracles.  From the perspective of the Gospel writers, without the miracles of Jesus, there would be no Christianity, making the historicity of the miracles of central significance.  With this in mind, the author courageously proceeds to establish his methodology, setting forth eighteen theses to use as a basis for his approach.  These theses fit into the following seven categories: burden of proof, demonstration, historicity, multiple attestation, dissimilarity, plausibility, and coherence.  As the miracle stories are filtered through this complex, though admittedly primitive, methodology for investigating the historicity of the activities of Jesus, Twelftree addresses some of the challenges, recognizing that authenticity and certainty is a complex notion that ought to be expressed in terms of a range of possibilities along a spectrum as opposed to any black or white expectations.

Having established that the Gospel writers believed that Jesus performed miracles and that Jesus himself understood his miracles as the activity of God, chapters eleven through sixteen (Part 4) set out to determine if the miracle stories have any historical foundation.  In a systematic fashion according to the type of miracle, Twelftree examines the supernatural accounts, searching for evidence in an attempt to try and prove the possibility of their historicity.  Though space limits a thorough analysis of his findings, the author discovers that the majority of miracles, twenty-two to be exact, can be judged with a high degree of confidence to have most likely occurred in the life of the historical Jesus.  Of the remaining seven miracle stories, too little data was available to contend their historical reliability with the same degree of confidence.  Fearing he may have offended some with his conclusions, Twelftree reemphasizes that this exercise has not been intended to call into question either the value of the Bible, the identity of Jesus, or his ability to perform miracles, but rather to reconstruct the historical Jesus with historically verifiable material that attests to him being a miracle worker.

 The final chapter (Part 5) is a summation of the four objectives including a chronological review of how the Gospel writers understood the miracles, comprising a wide-ranging, theologically rich, and homiletically valuable inventory of the nature and attributes of Christ.  In addressing the questions regarding the historical Jesus, Twelftree sums up his final argument by definitively asserting that any reconstruction of the historical Jesus must emphasize that he was a powerful miracle worker- an unwelcome outcome for those who have laboured so diligently to disprove the biblical witness of Christ.  Nevertheless, the Fellows of The Jesus Seminar would be amiss to ignore Twelftree’s monograph and his ground-breaking conclusions, achieved not through the lens of faith, but through judicious historical analysis.

Strengths

Graham H. Twelftree has published a masterful work, well documented and lucidly argued, and one which will undoubtedly influence any future discussions of the historicity of Jesus’ miracles.  There are a number of reasons for its significance.  First, the author displays a vast knowledge not only of the miracles of Jesus, but also an exhaustive understanding of New Testament history and theology.  A brief perusal of his published work indicates his expertise (43 published chapters and journal articles, 12 published books, 21 published reviews, and 11 works in progress).  Regardless of whatever one might think of his conclusions, his level of erudition demands that this volume not be overlooked.  Second, though the task of testing the historicity of the miracles of Jesus is a courageous endeavour, fraught with critics on either side, Twelftree recognizes the remedial nature of such a project, believing that a corrective is needed to reinstate the miracles of Jesus as a major component in a reconstruction of the historical Jesus.  The author also optimistically claims that faith will want to be informed about the Jesus of history- a contention that, in reality, may not be so widely received as he wishes.

Third, coming from a theologically conservative perspective, one of Twelftree’s greatest strengths is his high view of Scripture.  Instead of jumping into the debate of the historicity of miracles, the author begins his research by allowing the text to speak for itself on its own terms.  As each miracle story is examined, Twelftree addresses conflicting arguments about what the Gospel writer meant with a return to the facts of the written text.  He seeks to understand the miracle stories by discovering how the Gospel writers have gone about plotting their narratives and handling the details of their material to convey their message to the first readers.  Combating the literary deconstructionism that has traditionally characterized the search for the historical Jesus, Twelftree’s respect for and treatment of the text is apparent and appreciated.

Fourth, Twelftree is not bound by the interpretive systems of other theologians or commentators.  Since he is led by the text, the author is not tempted to embrace the exegetical frameworks that are commonly accepted, but is willing to question certain textual constructs and divert from their set structures.  To illustrate, within the three groups of miracle stories in Matthew eight and nine, H. J. Held and Jeremy Moiser both attribute particular thematic systems to each set of miracles.  Twelftree argues contrary to the proposed systems, suggesting that their thematic schemes are not found to dominate the respective collection of miracles.  Instead, each miracle story contributes to a variety of themes and cannot be bound to a single particular idea.  Throughout the text, the author continues to question assumed textual constructs and allows the text to determine the route of interpretation.

Fifth, for the theological student, Twelftree’s inclusion of the major philosophical and theological contributions is of tremendous benefit.  Though the monograph may be, at times, cumbersome for the layperson, discussing the central arguments of Hume, McKinnon, Bultmann, Macquarrie, Tillich and others all aid in understanding the broad and complex nature of the issues surrounding the quest for the historical Jesus.

Sixth, though Twelftree takes great pains not to allow his own pre-understanding to influence the direction of his research, in the end, he is unapologetic about his findings.  His conclusions undeniably lead to the fact that Jesus is God and Messiah.  Instead of shielding the reality or deflecting some of the implications, he clearly states the revolutionary significance of his research.  Though careful not to offend or criticize those with alternative views, he repeatedly emphasizes that, in response to the question, “Did Jesus perform miracles?” the answer is an incontrovertible and resonant “Yes!”  Those who wish to withdraw from the question of historicity for fear of discovering that the miracle stories can neither be dismissed as either mythical or as narrative creativity have little place to hide.  Twelftree declares that the miracle stories cannot be shifted to the periphery of the life and ministry of the historical Jesus, but are front and centre and can no longer be overlooked.

Weaknesses

Though Twelftree’s monograph stands as a masterful exposition of the theological and historical understanding of the miracles of Jesus, there are some minor chinks in his methodological armour.  First, at times the author is a bit too hasty in dismissing other arguments to his own line of reasoning.  To illustrate, in his assessment of the miracles in the Lukan narratives, he wishes to portray Jesus as having a balanced ministry between word and deed.  To contrast his aim, he very briefly highlights Robert Menzies argument that proposes that Luke, in keeping within the bounds of pre-Pauline understanding of the Spirit, is mainly concerned with the primacy of “word” or verbal proclamation.  Without giving more than a sentence to Menzies’ argument, Twelftree quickly dismisses the proposal and furthers his theory that Luke’s principle aim was to portray a balance among various aspects of Jesus’ ministry.  The reader is left to wonder why Menzies’ argument was not more fully developed to provide a better understanding of the differing opinions.  Admittedly, Twelftree had an enormous amount of material to cover and was not interested in producing an exhaustive commentary.  However, some opposing arguments require more development rather than less, not only for the sake of clarity, but to better inform the reader of other significant voices within the study.

Second, the author’s exegetical meanderings into allegorization was unexpected.  Though infrequent, the occurrences seem to force a claim for the historicity of a particular miracle story, bringing some suspect exegesis to an otherwise masterful work.  The miracle story where Jesus turns the water into wine involves the filling of six jars of water.  Twelftree argues that the number six would have been a significant number to the Johannine community and contends that the six jars, instead of the perfect number of seven, means that the coming of the expected reign of God waits completion in the resurrection and Parousia.  In the miracle story of the catch of fish, where the net did not break despite the large haul of fish, Twelfth indicates that the most natural interpretation of the net not breaking is that the church is able to contain all who can be brought into its compass.  Further, the 153 fish that were netted, according to Twelftree, are intended to reflect the fruitfulness, life, and immortality represented in the resurrection.  This type of biblical interpretation is laden with pitfalls and opens the door to a whole other dimension of interpretive possibilities.  Though using allegory in this manner may have aided the miracle stories test for historicity, it is not a proper way to interpret the Gospels and hopefully does not detract from the overall value of the project.

In conclusion, as a Pentecostal, reading Twelftree’s monograph was both thought provoking and rewarding.  Upon discovery of the book’s premise to discover the possible historicity of the miracle stories, the first impression was admittedly rather shallow, questioning the value of such an endeavour.  The quest for the historical Jesus was regarded as little more than a pursuit of futility and Twelftree’s objectives illustrated a lack of faith in the Word of God as a reliable or infallible witness to the miraculous activity of Christ.  However, the author articulated how this exercise was not intended to a call into question either the value of the Bible, the person of Jesus, or his ability to perform miracles, but rather to better comprehend the Bible and understand Jesus, his message, and the very essence of Christianity.  Imploring the reader, Twelftree argues that the truth of the message of Christ and the integrity of the faith depends on Jesus having performed miracles.  Without the miracles of Jesus there would have been no Christianity.  Illuminated to the value of the project and the theological wealth of the outcomes, it has become clear that this task is critical to the witness of Christ in the contemporary culture and an invaluable resource for anyone who desires to be an effective apologist for the faith.  The results speak for themselves.  Jesus cannot be seen only as merely a prophet, good teacher, or Jewish holy man, he is a miracle worker and, as emphasized in the Gospel of Matthew, Jesus is God himself, acting mightily among his people in history.  The implications of this project are highly significant, not only for the Fellows of The Jesus Seminar and their ongoing quest for the historical Jesus, but also for the church, who will need to re-examine their view of the person and work of Christ against the evidence of the Gospels weighed in history.

Foolishness to the Greeks by Lesslie Newbigin

by William Sloos

Lesslie Newbigin’s monograph, Foolishness to the Greeks (Grand Rapids: Eerdmans Publishing Company, 1986), examines what would unfold in a missionary encounter between the gospel and modern Western culture.  Believing the Post-Enlightenment era to be resistant to the gospel, Newbigin discusses how the modern way of perceiving, thinking, and living has emerged and how the dominant plausibility structure has relegated Christianity to the private sector, promoting in its place an ego-centric pagan society devoid of a Biblically-based value system and divinely ordained purpose.  Unwilling to return to either a corpus Christianum or preserve the status quo, the author calls the church to embrace a new paradigm that rejects the religious compartmentalization of the modern world and inaugurates a Christian social order modelled after the example of Christ.  Persuaded that the church has a God-given responsibility to shape the political and social landscape as well as the global system of industry and commerce, Newbigin postulates that the church must come out of the shadows and courageously speak on behalf of the disenfranchised, hold the governing authorities accountable to the Word of God, and proclaim the revolutionary message of the gospel in the public square.  With this framework in mind, this reflection paper will interact with three major issues with the book: 1) Newbigin’s missionary background as a basis for his analysis of modern Western faith, 2) a re-examination of the mission and model of Christ in light of the contemporary expression of faith, and 3) the radical call for a “conversion of the mind” within the context and culture of the Christian community (64).

First, the lens with which Newbigin analyzes the modern Western culture must be profoundly affected by his long-standing missionary tenure in India.  Appropriately noted that “if you want a definition of water, don’t ask a fish”, his cross-cultural experience has enabled him to observe and compare the fundamental differences of faith in the traditional Majority World and the Western context (21).  According to Newbigin, Christianity in the West has largely accepted its relegation to the private world, in all likelihood contrasting the pervasive nature of the gospel experienced in India (19).  If a native Indian accepts Christ, there is likely no distinction between their private and public spheres- their entire world is affected.  Possible outcomes of their conversion might include being rejected by their family, their community, and persecuted for their new-found faith.  In the existing post-Enlightenment, post-Christian West however, Christianity has developed into a private and personal experience- not to be intermingled with the public world.  The rise of the age of reason and the breakthrough of modern science have separated fact from value, leading to the elimination of teleology from human existence.  Without having an ultimate purpose in God, faith has taken a back seat to the pursuit of happiness.  Unlike Newbigin’s India, where faith impacts a person’s whole life, faith in the West has been cloistered away into a private and passive expression and is no longer a relevant voice in the secular community.  Undoubtedly, Newbigin’s career in India has illuminated him to the existing dichotomy of faith in the West and has motivated him to challenge these deep-seated inconsistencies with a fresh re-examination of the mission and model of Christ.

 Second, with the Christian faith outside of the public world of facts and unable to challenge the dominant scientific world-view with Biblical values, Newbigin re-examines the mission and model of Christ, drawing attention to his revolutionary nature and his kingship over all of life- public and private (101).  Affirming that the church cannot accept the situation in which the Christian faith is admitted as no more than a possible option for the private sector, nor can Christians seek refuge in a ghetto where their faith is not proclaimed as public truth for all, Christians must return to the mission and model of Christ, who entered the public world, challenged the governing authorities, and met the needs of the poor, the hungry, and the hurting (115).  Through his moral teachings and compassion for all people, Christ shows himself as the penultimate social worker/activist in the public world, standing up for what is right and reaching out to help those in need.  Within his bio-psycho-social schema of ministry, Christ is focussed on the cross, and through his death and resurrection, triumphs over the most pervasive human scourge, the curse of sin and death.  Christ did not come to inaugurate a private religion, but came to reconcile humankind by very a public and holistic salvific enterprise.  The contemporary church cannot continue to bury its head in the sand, hiding from its responsibilities to the current culture, but must re-enter the public world with the message of truth and reconciliation.

Finally, within this Christ-centred context, Newbigin calls for a radical conversion, not only of the will and feelings, but a conversion of the mind- a paradigm shift that leads to the development of a new plausibility structure founded on the Word of God (64).    Though the age of reason has banished values and purpose, the nation-state has replaced God as the source of human welfare, and modern theology has been reduced to a form of psychology, the living God of the Bible remains the only true answer for the human condition.  Now living in the post-modern era of ingrained moral relativity and indifference, the ultimate questions of final cause still saturate society.  The threat of climate change, volatile energy markets, and fears of terrorism dominate global anxieties, exposing the fragility of human existence.  To influence this constantly changing environment, the church, as the representation of Christ on earth, is in need of conversion, transformation, even revival, not just of the mind to the Word of God, but also of the spirit to the Spirit of God.  Through the emergence of a new plausibility structure founded on the eternal and living Word, the private sphere of faith must be demolished and the people of God must again take their place as salt and light in a desperate and disordered world.

Martin Luther: His Life and Teachings by James Arne Nestingen

by William Sloos

In James Arne Nestingen’s book, Martin Luther: His Life and Teachings, he presents Luther’s theology as rooted in the common and ordinary. Rather than seeking a spiritual experience outside of the ordinary or dreaming that a higher, holier, or more sanctified realm exists beyond the familiar, Luther discovers that living for Christ is found in loving others. No longer esteeming the sacred space of the monastery or the merit of escaping the secular world to serve God, the role of the believer is to carry on the mission of Christ in the marketplace. With the requirements of salvation realized through faith alone, Christians are liberated from the chore of performing religious works to appease an angry God. Free to serve others through the love of Christ, the walk of faith is manifest in the midst of a broken and suffering world; helping a neighbour, caring for an aging parent, or comforting a crying child all announces the presence of the resurrected Christ. In many ways, Luther’s life began to reflect this “down to earth” reorientation of the gospel and may have been the basis for Nestingen’s description of Luther’s Small Catechism as having “the earth in its mouth” (49).

Given the priority Luther placed on the Word of God, it is somewhat confusing that Luther would have less regard for some books of Scripture and a greater regard for other books (32). It seems that Luther esteemed the Gospels and the Pauline epistles as the primary works containing the message of Christ and the essence of the gospel. Other writings, such as the book of James which he criticized as “the epistle of straw” (most likely for its emphasis on works), is clearly undervalued; the presence of these books within the Canon even seems to have irritated him. Although he was convinced that God expresses himself to creation in and through the Word alone, I wonder what prevented Luther from allowing all the books of the Bible to inform and balance his theology (33). Was he so embittered by Roman Catholic soteriology that taught justification by works that he was unable to appreciate James’ exhortation that faith without works is useless? Undoubtedly, his view of the Scriptures must be seen through the lens of his experiences. Given his experience of the Roman distortion of the gospel, it appears Luther’s view of the Word of God was somewhat weighted according to his emphasis on faith alone.

Examining the nature of the continuing conversation between Luther and contemporary Christian thought, Nestingen makes a helpful clarification regarding Luther’s concept of Christian freedom. Unlike the popular definition of the word that understands freedom as freedom for the self, Luther regarded freedom as freedom from the self (79). No longer bound by the personal quest to achieve salvation by means of obedience to the commandments of the Church, liberty for Christians is established on justification by faith alone. Released from the uncertainties of salvation that defined faith according to Rome, Christians can be free to live for Christ, love their neighbours, and transform their communities. For Luther, freedom was not about the individual possession of religious choice currently pervading the consumer-driven ethos of contemporary Western culture, but was rather about the unfettered privilege of serving others through the grace of Christ.

Luther: Man Between God and the Devil by Heiko A. Oberman

by William Sloos

Heiko A. Oberman’s book, Luther: Man Between God and the Devil, is an insightful examination of the Luther’s life and theology. Captivating my interest was Luther’s perspective regarding the Church that exists in a tolerant world. Foreshadowing his struggle against the indulgence industry, Luther expounded on the problem of living in a tolerant society where the Church’s immoral and unethical activities are allowed to persist without restraint. In the autumn of 1514, Luther states, “Today the Devil is endangering the Church with the greatest conceivable persecutions, namely without persecution, with tolerance and security. Woe to us, who are so dazzled by satiety and well-being that we fall into the Devil’s trap” (257). Despite having constitutional safeguards that guaranteed freedom and safety to worship, Luther argued that an enduring collective tolerance can be a potent tool of the devil to persecute the true faith. Luther’s warnings are also applicable to believers in the contemporary context. Using the subtle temptations of the current culture, the devil continues to rigorously persecute the Church to weaken its mission to liberate fallen humanity through the love of Christ.

The relationship between the Erasmus, the Dutch humanist and theologian, and Luther was somewhat confusing for me. From the text, I understand that Erasmus and Luther were at odds regarding the nature of God, namely His sovereignty and transcendence. Erasmus claimed that God is so far above His creation that he cannot be grasped or understood by the majority. Contrary to Erasmus’ view, Luther considered God to be knowable through the Scriptures (213). According to Oberman, these divergent opinions became critical issues of debate throughout the Reformation, but what was the nature of Luther and Erasmus’ relationship? Did they have common ground or were they opponents? Was Erasmus sympathetic or opposed to Luther’s reforms? In conjunction with Oberman, further reading was necessary to understand their relationship.

Oberman’s discussion on how the Reformation reconnected believers with the world was particularly helpful. Within the medieval context, a typical response to the evils of the world was to abandon the world and retreat into the confines of a holy order. Luther’s insistence that Christians were not to shun the world, but were to transform the world was a profound reorientation of ecclesiastical ontology. Good works, once performed to conform to the expectations of God or the Church, are now redirected to the benefit and well-being of creation. Since faith in Christ is sufficient for salvation, resources and energies can be channelled towards improving human life and enriching the earth. Emphasizing this radical shift, Oberman states “Reformation of the Church will be God’s work- at the end. Improvement of the world is the reformation’s work- now” (179).

With the Holocaust as a relatively recent event in history, it is difficult to read Luther’s malicious verbal attacks against the Jews and not feel appalled. Luther’s strong anti-Semitic statements make it challenging for modern readers to completely embrace him. Being a product of his generation, it seems as if Luther was simply echoing commonly-held nationalist sentiments and articulating his concerns for the welfare of the Christian faith (289). Nevertheless, his comments are a regrettable blot on the history of the Evangelical Church and an uncomfortable component of Reformation studies.

Style: Toward Clarity and Grace

by William Sloos

In the book, Style: Toward Clarity and Grace (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1990), authors Joseph M. Williams and Gregory C. Colomb provide an effective teaching manual to assist novice writers in turning elementary prose into clear, compelling, and persuasive writing.  Instead of offering a tiresome prescription of rules or an overly simplistic how-to list, chapters discuss how to be concise, focussed, and structured in the writing process.  To educate writers in distinguishing poor quality writing from high quality writing, numerous real life writing examples are illustrated, demonstrating how sentences and paragraphs can be revised and improved.  Aimed at developing advanced writing skills, a variety of practical methodologies are presented to assist writers in producing a coherent and elegant document that succinctly communicates their objectives.  Beyond mere mechanics, larger matters of form and organization are explored with the purpose of equipping writers with a range of workable solutions to enable them to better engage with their readers and produce a final draft that is not only readable, but is a skilfully written and professional composition.

Recognizing that even mature writers can sometimes write poorly, the authors also explain the various causes for poor writing and suggest ways for writers to identify, diagnose, and overcome different problems that can occur in the writing process.  They identify a number of factors that can contribute to poor writing including: an unfamiliar topic, confusion over the objective, insufficient time to revise, bad writing habits, or just plain ineptitude.  Additionally, writers may also write poorly because they use pretentious language, fear making grammatical mistakes, or experience episodes of “stylistic aphasia”, a regression that occurs when writers write about things they know little about.  Being able to address the sources of poor writing can assist writers in identifying their weaknesses and discover and develop effective strategies for overcoming them.

Additionally, the authors also explore the origins and consequences of writing professional prose.  Some distinguished professional writers have crafted complex arguments but have failed to effectively communicate the complexities in a clear and concise fashion, leaving readers feeling confused and incompetent in their reading comprehension.  Though complex writing may reflect complex ideas more precisely, it may also needlessly complicate complex ideas, or even complicate simple ideas.  Rather than making complex ideas and concepts more convoluted, the authors suggest ways to write in a manner that takes complex material and communicates it in a clear and simple approach, without surrendering professionalism or diminishing the essential components of the argument or objective.

One of the challenges novice writers encounter is how to build appropriate emphasis and climactic rhythm in the structure of a sentence to create a seamless and dynamic flow of ideas.  When the beginning of a sentence is clearly organized around a few central characters or concepts, followed by a precise verb expressing a critical action, then space will be available in the sentence to stress new information that will lead to the next sentence.  This writing style adds movement to the prose and builds rhythm that makes reading more compelling.  Moreover, writers can add emphasis and climactic rhythm to their prose when they learn to manage the stressed or latter portion of the sentence.  Stressing new information in the latter portion of the sentence continues the flow of ideas and maintains the interest of the reader.  It is advised that unnecessary words be trimmed off the stressed portion of the sentence until the right information is emphasized.  Old or less important information can be shifted to the topic section of the sentence, leaving new or important information exposed and emphasized in the remaining portion of the sentence.  When writing a long sentence, sometimes information that requires stressing is placed in the middle, diminishing its emphasis and reducing the focus of the reader.  When this occurs, it is advisable that the sentence be broken into two, separated either just before or just after the important information.  By doing this, writers are forced to isolate the main point of the sentence and revise the information so that it is properly emphasized.  Though not every sentence needs to adhere to this order, some of these insights can help writers develop a coherent writing style that is brimming with action, energy, and emphasis.

Another challenge that novice writers face is how to diagnose and revise incoherent writing so that readers can easily follow the argument.  Since coherence is an abstract concept, the authors do not present rules that dictate every paragraph, but rather suggest five helpful principles that guide writers in identifying areas in their document that may be convoluted or difficult to follow.

First, a cohesive paragraph has consistent topic strings.  For readers to easily trace the story, familiar information is required at the beginning of sentences, such as the main characters or central concepts.  Since the text usually has multiple characters or concepts, a coherent paper requires carefully crafted topic strings that unite the key elements of the story and focus the attention of the readers on a particular point of view.

Second, a cohesive paragraph has another set of strings running through it called thematic strings.  Thematic strings are comprised of key words that capture the essential ideas that writers construct around the main characters.  These sets of conceptually related words constitute the main idea of the entire passage, helping readers to easily track the development of the argument.

Third, a cohesive paragraph introduces new topics and thematic strings in a predictable location, primarily at the end of a sentence that begins a new paragraph.  The manner in which a paragraph opens determines how readers will comprehend the remainder of the paragraph.  When new themes are introduced at the end of the first sentence of a paragraph, readers are given a conceptual framework for the rest of the passage, enabling them to anticipate the actions of the main characters or key concepts without having to assimilate a large quantity of new information.

Fourth, a coherent paragraph usually has a single point sentence that clearly articulates the main idea of the passage.  When moving from one paragraph to another, new thoughts are continually being introduced requiring at least one sentence in each paragraph to clearly identify the main point.  When revising papers, writers should be able to review each paragraph and easily identify the key sentence that captures the main point of the passage.

Fifth, a coherent paragraph typically locates the point sentence in one of two places, either at the end of an issue or the end of a discussion.  In addition to clearly summarizing the main point of an issue, point sentences also signal to readers that the point being discussed is drawing to a close and a new issue is about to be introduced.  Since they also work as a partition between main points, point sentences are most commonly located at the conclusion of a paragraph, section, or even a whole document.  Incorporating these five principles into the revision process is essential in helping writers produce a coherent manuscript that effectively guides readers through the argument with clarity and understanding.

Fire from Heaven by Harvey Cox

by William Sloos

Harvey Cox’s book, Fire from Heaven, is a thought-provoking examination of the Pentecostal movement, identifying its origins, describing its unique expression of Christian spirituality within its specific cultural and social contexts, and critically analyzing the movement’s current internal and external struggles.  The author, himself a confessed non-Pentecostal, yet intrigued by the global attraction to this extraordinary genre of Christianity, discusses how Pentecostal spirituality has been successful in capturing the human spirit or “primal spirituality”, supplanting artificial religious forms and customs to provide a Christ-centered channel for the emotional expression of the soul.  He unveils how Pentecostalism has also been a liberating force, affecting antediluvian attitudes and overcoming gender inequalities by empowering women within their unique social and cultural milieus.  Additionally, Cox discusses the inherent syncretistic nature of Pentecostalism and how indigenous pre-Christian spiritual practices have been absorbed and adopted into Pentecostal spirituality, creating various strains in the expression of faith throughout the world.  The author also illuminates some of the challenges the Pentecostal church is facing in the West, specifically the tension between the fundamentalist agenda and “experientialists”, and how these groups are waging war over the Pentecostal movement, attempting to redefine the Pentecostal mission and purpose according to their own objectives (304).

Though many Pentecostals would suggest the reason for the tremendous success of the Pentecostal movement predominantly revolves around the supernatural work of the Holy Spirit, Cox believes Pentecostalism has succeeded because it has cut through the hollow religiosity of the traditional church and has reached in and captured the raw human spirit (105).  He suggests that people, from a variety of racial, ethnic and cultural backgrounds, have been taken captive by the message of Pentecost because it speaks directly to the core of human existence and embodies, what the author calls, “primal spirituality” (81).  Cox argues that, where vernacular religious language fails, glossolalia empowers, where antiquated religious practices fall short, “primal piety” or the Pentecostal expression of faith comes alive, and Pentecostal eschatology, containing a literal hope of the imminent return of Christ provides value and meaning for its followers where other religious eschatological belief systems disappoint (83).  The intrinsic attraction of the Pentecostal message is thus, not simply confined to the personal experience of the manifest presence of the Holy Spirit, but also provides believers with a conduit whereby they can wholly express the inner spiritual cravings of the soul.

While other expressions of orthodox Christianity rest heavily on the cognitive packaging of doctrine and catechism, Pentecostals primarily lean on the subjective, experiential and emotional elements of faith.  Though they thrive within a thoroughly intentional Biblical framework, the essence of the Pentecostal expression of faith is received predominantly through the emotions.  Salvation and Spirit-baptism are personally experienced, worship is expressed with the whole being, and even the preaching of the Word is received, less with the head and more with the heart.  Some of the great theological treatises, eloquently delivered in the most sacred of pulpits by the most academically endowed of theologians might be entirely disregarded or even distained by Pentecostals, who believe that the message matters most when it speaks directly to the soul.

Though some would argue that Pentecostal believers leave their brains in the foyer with their coats, this corporate expression of primal spirituality in the service continues to be a cherished and passionately defended commodity.  Mature believers are brimming with oft-repeated stories of the fiery days of Pentecost with tarrying services, dancing in the Spirit, and prayer meetings lasting long into the night.  Still today, when the Pentecostal pastor sets aside his sermon to “let the Spirit have his way”, congregants regard this occurrence to be the pinnacle of the Pentecostal experience and are delighted that the pastor yielded to the Spirit’s agenda.  Those who are concerned that the Pentecostal movement is in a state of regression, frequently remark that they are losing the opportunity to express their primal spirituality because of the clergy-controlled environment of some services and, some would argue, that Pentecostals need to break off their love affair with modern technologies and return to their first love, an uncomplicated, passionate expression of faith.  As Cox noted, Pentecostalism has become the instrument for contemporary primal spirituality, giving people, once held by the restraints of vain religious ritual, a voice, an expression, and a hope that connects them with their Creator, stirs their souls and exchanges the emptiness of their lives with a divinely appointed mission and purpose (95).

Not only does Pentecostalism provide a liberating, primordial spirituality for individual believers, Cox also explores its liberating potency in the broader spectrum of society as well.  In Sicily, he studied how the Pentecostal movement has provided an opportunity for women to be empowered through the use of spiritual gifts, ministry, and church leadership.  Long dominated by a Roman Catholic patriarchal religious and social context, women have vociferously espoused the Pentecostal message that the Holy Spirit imparts and empowers regardless of gender (199).  Even though the Bible unambiguously stresses that women adhere to a submissive and secondary role in the church, they are being persuaded by the Holy Spirit to fulfill, what they believe to be, the call of God on their lives.  Since these women have been exercising the public gifts of healing and prophecy in public services and assuming the majority of church leadership roles, they have developed their leadership skills and have displayed a greater degree of self confidence that they are now, as Cox noted, “extending their authority well outside the kitchen…into a public area which has heretofore been the men’s exclusive domain” (199).  This empowering element of Pentecostal spirituality, like a subtle mountain stream, is unassumingly meandering its way down and around the outcroppings of inequality and injustice, gaining strength, and becoming a mighty river of culture change.  The male opponents of Italian Pentecostalism have recognized these apparent cultural shifts and, though threatened, find that little can be done to thwart this Spirit-led feminist uprising (198).

Though Canadian gender differences may not be as divergent as those of the Italians, the role of women in the Pentecostal church in Canada has also influenced traditional orthodox presuppositions.  Unlike most other Christian churches, Pentecostals place a major emphasis on the personal leading of the Holy Spirit, creating an unspoken tension between Biblical adherence and pnematological directives.  Women have wisely used this tension to their own advantage and have seized the opportunity to, as Cox suggests, “create a new space for leadership, empowerment, and- possibly one day- the reconfiguration of a centuries-old cultural pattern” (196).  Women like Aimee Semple McPherson, who responded to the voice of the Spirit and became a world renowned evangelist, or Alice Garrigus, who established Pentecostalism in Newfoundland, were far ahead of their times.  These female pioneers, not dissuaded by the criticisms of their male counterparts, blazed a trail for future generations of women leaders who have since chosen to follow the call of God on their own lives.  Even though their motivations were derived from their own passion to serve the Lord and they had little interest in championing gender issues, they inadvertently created a seismic shift in traditionally held religious and social attitudes of the time and set in motion a current of change that has yet to be fully realized.

Not only has Pentecostalism embraced a primal spirituality and engaged in changing cultural and religious norms, it also is highly syncretistic, reaching beyond traditional orthodox boundaries to absorb a wide variety of indigenous practices.  Cox illustrates how the African Pentecostal movement, or “impulse”, since its spirituality is not inhibited by denominational precincts, has embraced many historically African spiritual practices such as trance, ecstasy, visions, dreams and healings (248).  He also identifies the unique blend of Pentecostalism and shamanism in the Korean Pentecostal movement saying, “one of the key reasons for Korean Pentecostalism’s extraordinary growth is its unerring ability to absorb huge chunks of indigenous Korean shamanism and demon possession into its worship” (222).  To the Western mind, this mixing and mingling of pre-Christian spiritual practices with Pentecostal faith could be perceived as a departure from mainstream Pentecostalism and look more sectarian, or even cultic, than Pentecostal.  However, the Pentecostal church in the West is not so dissimilar, but has also unashamedly incorporated culturally specific extra-Christian behaviours and practices into their own unique expression of faith and theology.

The ideologies of capitalism and the unbridled pursuit of wealth have stealthily infiltrated Western Pentecostal theology and practice, creating considerable inconsistencies between the Biblical text and the life of the believer.  From Christian Caribbean cruises to Christian-themed amusement parks, the Pentecostal movement has led the way in generating an acceptable relationship between wealth and faith.  Though cloaked in the spirit of generosity, the church in the West continues to build their exclusive kingdoms while the Majority world struggles with war, disease, and famine.  Thus, even though shamanism and some indigenous African practices have crept into the Pentecostal movement in their respective settings, Pentecostalism in the West has equally synthesized itself with the culture, creating an awkward contradiction of faith that may cause a Pentecostal in the Majority world to question the Biblical integrity of the Western believer.

Finally, Cox pointedly illustrates how the Pentecostal movement in America has become a battleground, where the fundamental and experiential factions are waging war, attempting to reclaim the Pentecostals for themselves (308).  Cox writes, “Within the churches…of the Pentecostal movement a sharp clash is under way between those who would like to capture it for the fundamentalist party and for the religious-political right, and those who insist that its authentic purpose is to cut through creeds and cannons and bring the Gospel of God’s justice and the Spirit’s nearness to everyone” (310).  It seems that most Pentecostals are caught in the middle of the crossfire, agreeing with most of the fundamentalist agenda, but not completely prepared to join its ranks, still believing that the presence of God is their primary pursuit, evangelism their primary mission, and the imminent return of Christ their primary motivation.

In the United States, right-wing fundamentalist Christian groups have made it their aim to battle with the government and left-leaning social parties over the contentious and polarizing social issues currently shaping the political landscape.  Pentecostals are thrown into the fundamentalist corner and are labelled as being anti-gay, anti-abortion, anti-immigrant, and opposed to stem cell research to name just a few.  However, though Pentecostals, for example, believe that abortion is morally wrong, protesting abortion clinics, lobbying politicians, and participating in pro-life demonstrations are not necessarily what they believe to be their collective mandate.  Unfortunately, if Pentecostals appear to be weak-kneed or reluctant to stand up and fight these issues, fundamentalists question their devotion to God and Scripture and they are treated with, as Cox notes, “more venom than they do outsiders” (302).

The fundamentalist agenda to aggressively impose the laws of God upon the state, though primarily American, has slithered unnoticed across the border and has crept into Pentecostal churches in Canada, usually through the back door of good intentions.  Most Canadian Pentecostals would agree that Canada is in a state of moral decline, however the fundamentalist agenda demands that political action is needed to reverse the trend.  When Alliance leader Stockwell Day, a born again Christian from Ontario, campaigned to be Canada’s prime minister in 2000, Pentecostal believers, working under a fundamentalist ideology, attempted to rally Pentecostal churches across the country to get behind his run for office.  When a number of churches rejected the invitation, believing their role to remain politically neutral, they were roundly criticized as being liberally-minded, indifferent to Judeo-Christian principles and unconcerned about the moral condition of the state.  After a number of embarrassing gaffs in his campaign and a sound defeat at the polls, these Pentecostals were left out in the cold along with their campaign signs, beaten, not by Paul Martin, but by the secular humanist agenda.  The early Pentecostal believers would have never found themselves in such an awkward position; they would have had little time to concern themselves with politics- they were living in the last days, Jesus was returning, and souls, not political agendas, hung in the balance (288).

In conclusion, Harvey Cox, though he himself is not a Pentecostal, and admits that he “will probably never speak in tongues”, has an appreciation and affinity for the Pentecostal movement and its influence on orthodox Christianity (182).  Pentecostalism does what other Christian belief systems fail to do; it provides a means for the expression of the primal spirit of humankind that satisfies the soul with meaning and purpose.  The Pentecostal movement has also served to liberate some of the outmoded social and cultural presuppositions that have confined society for centuries.  Without employing divisive or manipulative methods, women have chosen to yield themselves first to the Holy Spirit and follow his leading, causing the wall of gender inequality and injustice to crack and crumble, freeing women to seize new opportunities and realize their unlimited potential.  Additionally, Cox identifies the syncretistic nature of Pentecostalism in Korea and Africa, but misses the parallel with Pentecostalism in the West, which has also adopted certain indigenous practices into its expression of faith, embracing a capitalist ideology that parades its wealth before a hungry world.

Finally, the author illustrates how fundamentalism is infiltrating the Pentecostal church in the West, attempting to influence and redirect its purpose and mission toward its own initiatives.  Unfortunately, it seems that the fundamentalist agenda is gaining strength in Canada, causing Pentecostal believers to view moral, ethical, and political matters through the lenses of distorted and unbalanced literal Biblical interpretations, instead of through careful research and rational thought.  Maybe the greatest defense against the burgeoning doctrines of fundamentalism is a reawakening of primal spirituality akin to that of William Seymour and the Azusa Street revivalists whose influence transformed the church and set hearts on fire.

An Introduction to Pentecostalism by Allan Anderson

by William Sloos

In his book, An Introduction to Pentecostalism, Allan Anderson explores the global impact of the Pentecostal movement around the world.  He defines Pentecostalism as a diverse and rapidly expanding religious movement that emphasizes the work of the Holy Spirit in experience and practice and chronicles areas where it is presently thriving.  Anderson also details the movement’s historical roots, identifies its pioneers and influential leaders, and exposes a wide variety of indigenous Pentecostal expressions occurring throughout the world.  He additionally examines how Pentecostalism has developed on a global scale and how its world-wide impact has produced another reformation of the church.

Anderson suggests that the origin of the Pentecostal movement is deeply rooted in history and cannot be restricted to a commonly held  “suddenly from heaven” point of view.  He outlines the historical background of Pentecostalism beginning by exploring the ecstatic phenomena of the early church.  Anderson also documents the existence of spontaneous worship, spiritual gifts and unusual manifestations occurring in the church throughout the Middle Ages.  From the Protestant Reformation onward, he documents a number of fringe groups mainly throughout Europe and America, such as the Irvingites, Shakers, and Mormons, who experienced a variety of charismata including tongue speaking, healing, prophecy, and exorcism in their meetings.

In the eighteen century, Methodist founder John Wesley began to teach that one could have a spiritual experience subsequent to conversion which, Anderson notes,  “constituted the egg that hatched the Holiness movement and its offspring, Pentecostalism” (26).  When the Azusa Street revival erupted in 1906, Anderson points out that the Pentecostal movement was already established and thriving in a number of locations throughout the world.  Thus, Azusa Street was significant to Pentecostalism, not because it conceived the movement, but propelled the movement to the forefront of the global religious stage.

Anderson also documents how Pentecostal methodology has demonstrated an extraordinary ability to attract people from a wide range of contexts.  Unlike the mainline church model imported from Europe which had concentrated on the implementation of doctrine and theology, Pentecostalism has preached that God can be personally experienced, can meet individual needs, and can better the surrounding social and economic conditions.  Whether in segregated South Africa, impoverished Calcutta, or politically oppressed Latin America, Pentecostalism has reached into the cultural sub-consciousness of the people and has equipped and empowered them to create and embrace change.  This brand of Protestant Christianity has been effectively contextualized around the world by adapting to cultural value systems and current economic and political constructs, making it an attractive spiritual alternative for people.  Through this holistic approach, the Pentecostal movement has not only affected change in the individual, but whole societies throughout the Majority World and as Anderson suggests, has impacted the Christian faith around the world.

Though Anderson points out that Pentecostalism is seen as more contextualized than any other form of Christianity (239), he also infers that the movement’s cultural influence in the West is becoming harder to identify, specifically in white, classical Pentecostal churches.  In the Majority World, the Pentecostal praxis continues to successfully transcend cultural boundaries by offering genuine spiritual experiences, meeting basic social needs and offering hope for people’s immediate and long term future.  Classical Pentecostalism in the West however, though established and mature, may be straying from its elemental underpinnings and losing ground as a radical grassroots movement and spiritual alternative in the local and national religious landscape.  Anderson quotes Harvey Cox, saying that Pentecostals in North America are “betraying their origins” as a movement and are being transformed by their culture instead of transforming culture (258).  It seems that the non-conformist roots that defined the movement in the West for most of the twentieth century have been chiseled away, causing the movement to lose its momentum and influence on the local and national stratum.

Cox raises a number of issues presently occurring in Western Pentecostalism that would suggest there is, at best, an identity crisis taking place and, at worst, a move away from Pentecostal orthodoxy.  He suggests that the prosperity gospel, with its wealthy proponents and lavish lifestyles, has impacted the Pentecostal movement, creating the emergence of an egocentric faith structure that fully embraces Western capitalism.  He also suggests that the development of dogma, use of modern techniques, and a return to a “white male dominated denominationalism” (258) are indications that things have changed from the self-sacrificing days of early Pentecost.  Lastly, Cox denotes how American classical Pentecostals, who were historically pacifistic have become what he calls, “super-patriots” (258), many of whom support their government’s foreign policies and military campaigns with unabashed enthusiasm.

Canadian classical Pentecostalism does not reflect many of these criticisms, but it is facing some considerable obstacles in maintaining its distinctive place in Canadian religiosity.  One could argue that there is a decontextualization presently occurring among classical Pentecostals whereby once previously successful methods have been rendered inadequate by a rapidly changing postmodern culture.  Instead of embracing the songs and symbols of the current generation and speaking the cultural language of the present day, some churches are continuing to utilize the idioms of the past and, in doing so, unintentionally creating a subculture unto itself.  The Canadian classical Pentecostal church needs a new indigenization where culturally archaic forms and functions, that at one point served its mission well, should be abandoned in favour of a new form of contextual ministry that reflects the movement’s original message and power.

If classical Pentecostal churches in Canada are to regain their influence as a distinct Spirit-led, Spirit-empowered form of Christianity, it may be necessary to retrace their history and rediscover the consuming fire behind these early revivals.  The movement should revisit its heritage and the characteristics of, what Hollenweger considers the movement’s ideological founder, William Seymour (271).  Seymour represented a form of Christianity that not only included the immediacy of the presence of God and the power of the Holy Spirit, but also accepted each person regardless of race or class.  He was not hindered by theological structures but humbly led like-minded believers in seeking more of God.  Seymour’s example of inclusive spirituality, humility, minimalist pragmatism, and deep-seated passion for the Holy Spirit are qualities that defined the best of early Pentecost and are worth integrating in a new post-modern paradigm.

Finally, Anderson’s retelling of the Canadian contribution to the Pentecostal movement creates a much needed awareness and appreciation for those early pioneers that obeyed the call of God and gave their lives to missions and evangelism.  He writes about the work of Frederick Mebius, who, prior to Azusa Street, was influenced by Parham’s Apostolic Faith and in 1904 traveled to El Salvador to establish a Pentecostal church.  The author also documents the work of the Chawner and Keller family in South Africa, Mark and Huldah Buntain in India, and many other Canadian Pentecostal missionaries around the world.  The PAOC has a rich heritage and should not be overlooked or disregarded, but should be rediscovered by the present generation of Pentecostals to refortify and revive its orthodox mission and message.

Aimee Semple McPherson- Everybody’s Sister by Edith L. Blumhofer

by William Sloos

Aimee Semple McPherson was raised in a small farming community in southern Ontario and became one of the most renowned and controversial evangelists of early twentieth century America.  Heavily influenced by her mother’s faith and the religious zeal of the Salvationists and Pentecostals, Aimee’s young faith was enflamed with purpose.  With a passion for lost people, Aimee began a remarkable journey that led her into the hearts and minds of an entire generation.

Throughout her formative years, Aimee was exposed to various expressions of the Protestant Christian faith.  She attended Methodist services, was involved in the outreaches of the Salvation Army and, as an eighteen year old, began attending local Pentecostal meetings.  During these Pentecostal services she experienced the baptism of the Holy Spirit and spoke in tongues for the first time.  It was also at this time that Aimee also began to exhibit a knack for public speaking, debate and drama and quickly immersed herself into the activities and events surrounding the Pentecostal mission.

In 1908, Aimee met and married Robert Semple, a Pentecostal preacher from Northern Ireland.  Driven to carry the Pentecostal message to the ends of the earth, they left for the mission field in China.  Aimee’s life was forever changed during her stay in Hong Kong when her beloved husband passed away and her daughter Roberta was born a month later.  Shortly thereafter, she returned to North America and was reunited with her mother, now working for the Salvation Army in New York City.

It was during these years that Aimee’s talent as an evangelist emerged.  After a second marriage and another child, Aimee experienced a crisis moment where she received the Holy Spirit’s call to preach the gospel.  In 1915, she was invited to speak at a Pentecostal mission in Mount Forest, Ontario.  It was here that Aimee discovered her exceptional ability to attract a crowd.  At the conclusion of the meetings, over a hundred professed conversion and several claimed miraculous healings.  Aimee’s public ministry was launched.

Within a year, she began barnstorming up and down the eastern seaboard, setting up crusade tents, holding meetings, and preaching what she called, “Biblical Christianity”.  Aimee experienced tremendous success as people flocked to hear her simple, practical, but passionate call to faith.  In 1918, she relocated her ministry to Los Angelus and built the Angelus Temple, a facility that seated over five thousand people.  Aimee demonstrated her ability as a tireless visionary, an innovator and a savvy marketer by exploiting every avenue to further her “Four Square” gospel message.

During Aimee’s ministry, she experienced tremendous highs and lows.  She enjoyed the fame of a Hollywood celebrity with adoring crowds and national media attention.  Aimee also suffered through depression, family conflict, and a number of highly publicized events that damaged her credibility.  Nevertheless, Aimee Semple McPherson has left a lasting legacy as a dearly loved evangelist and founder of the International Church of the Four Square Gospel.

            The quality that made Aimee so unique was her single-minded determination to fulfill the call of God on her life.  Although she encountered many opposing voices, she was not to be discouraged.  As a teenager, Aimee overcame her mother’s misgivings about her Pentecostal experience.  She would also not be bound by her second husband’s request for her to stay at home and raise a family.  Aimee ignored the pressure imposed on her by the Assemblies of God’s demand to frame her doctrinal beliefs.  Aimee’s determination enabled her to overcome any obstacle she encountered.

When it came to gender issues, Aimee’s response was predictably charged.  When attacked by some fundamentalist outsiders suggesting that she should be disqualified for religious leadership because she was a woman, Aimee declared that “women must preach to fulfill the Scriptures” (p.195).  When criticized by other leaders in an attempt to silence her, she either disregarded their threats or challenged them head on; she was not to be moved.  Aimee believed she was called by God for this time and purpose, and to her credit, stood strong in the face of her detractors.

Though Aimee exuded an exceptional self confidence, she also exhibited a number of questionable moral judgments throughout her life.  She considered her calling of greater importance than her vows of marriage to her second husband.  Her children saw little of their mother due to her exhausting schedule as temple pastor and itinerant evangelist.  As her ministry broadened and her popularity surged, Aimee began to experience fatigue, exhaustion, and, what seemed to be, a clear lack boundaries.

As questions of her morality began to surface in the media, Aimee would utilize her fame to her own advantage and depend on the good faith of her followers to uphold her reputation.  She would cleverly recast her personal problems as spiritual struggles, making her audiences feel like she was the victim.  It was only after her mysterious disappearance that Aimee’s pristine image began to erode.

It could be argued that after Aimee built the Angelus Temple, she began to lose her sense of purpose and mission.  While Aimee was in the field, holding crusades and fund-raising for the temple, her dedication and commitment to her goal was unparalleled.  Her assiduousness and enthusiasm attracted thousands of people to her cause.  Many people joined her ever growing leadership and ministry teams.  However, once the Angelus Temple was completed, a tremendous accomplishment for a thirty-three year old woman in 1923, her drive and focus seemed to ebb away.  It seemed that she wasn’t prepared for the responsibilities and pressures of being the chief operating officer of such a vast organization.

Eventually Aimee found herself in a management position that she began to loathe.  In the mundane activities of running the temple and training centre, she became easily frustrated.  The intense schedule continued, but it revolved around the temple instead of in the field.  Conflicts began to surface with temple leadership and the media’s love affair with her began to wane.  Lawsuits piled up.  Her relationship with her mother was strained.  She started feeling lonely and depressed.  Culminating in her mysterious disappearance, Aimee’s once highly successful and celebrated life was in utter confusion.

Despite these difficulties, Aimee continued to present herself as a passionate, faith-filled woman, relating to and inspiring the people around her.  However, Aimee had changed.  It could very well have been that the adoration of thousands, the intense media scrutiny, and the unbridled position of authority spoiled this once energetic traveling evangelist.  In the closing years of her ministry, Aimee distanced herself from the people closest to her, alienating her mother and becoming estranged to her daughter.  It appears that Aimee endured the great price of popularity in America in the 1920’s; the circumstances of her death not unlike other celebrities of her time.

Despite the controversies, Aimee’s life and ministry left an enduring legacy.  She influenced some of the most cherished church leaders of today, including Jack Hayford and Charles Price.  The movement that she founded in 1944 currently has over 10,000 churches and continues to advance the gospel throughout the world.

The Pentecostal Pastor: Mandate for the 21st Century

by William Sloos

Aimed at nurturing the emerging Pentecostal clergy of the twenty-first century, The Pentecostal Pastor is a compilation of articles covering a wide variety of topics related to pastoral ministry in the contemporary Pentecostal context. Written by Pentecostal pastors, college presidents, and denominational leaders, each of the seventy-three contributors discuss practical pastoral theology through the lens of their own experiences in the field of Pentecostal leadership. Intended for current pastors or students preparing for ministry within the Assemblies of God or other Pentecostal denominations, the book is a valuable resource that addresses many aspects of Pentecostal ministry.

 Following an introduction by Thomas Trask, the former general superintendent of the Assemblies of God, the book is divided into six units of study. Unit one explores the priorities in the pastor’s life and covers issues concerning the pastoral marriage, devotional life, time management, sermon preparation, and personal accountability. Additionally, a series of articles examines how a pastor should relate to a new church, other pastors in the community, and the previous pastor of the church. Building on unit one, unit two analyzes the pastor’s personal life and candidly discusses some of the unique struggles currently facing pastors. Handling stress, financial pressures, physical and emotional health, and sexual ethics are some of the topics addressed. Entitled, “Preparing for Revival, unit three analyzes the practical and spiritual functions of ministry in the Pentecostal context. The authors in this section concentrate on issues related to developing a mission and vision, igniting and pastoring a revival, mobilizing people for ministry, and incorporating effective methods of evangelizing the local community. Addressing administrative matters, unit four focuses on working with church boards, leading congregational business meetings, understanding the legal system, managing conflict, and overseeing the organizational functions of the local church. Unit five, entitled “Ministry to the Body,” is concerned with developing healthy working relationships in the ministry. Church growth strategies, team building, staff cohesion, and senior pastor and pastoral staff relationships comprise some of the themes in this chapter. The final unit attends to matters related to the Pentecostal service and addresses the function and flow of the Holy Spirit, the importance of the Pentecostal distinctives, the role of music, and the development of Spirit-led preaching, worship, and altar services.

Analysis

Examining the relationship between senior pastors and pastoral staffs, author Wayde I. Goodale contends that one of the greatest contributing factors to the short tenure of associate pastors is strained staff relationships (326). Citing several examples from his own experiences in ministry, Goodale stresses that senior pastors have a tendency to become isolated and walk alone in their lives and ministries. They can become absorbed with the pressures and demands that come with their position and neglect the importance of functioning as a team (328). As the national coordinator for ministerial enrichment for the Assemblies of God, Goodale recognizes that healthy interpersonal relationships between senior pastors and their associates are critical in maintaining unity and often facilitate in creating strong, successful, and enduring ministries (327). Using the example of Christ and his relationship with the disciples, Goodale exhorts church leaders to work in unity, spend time together, submit to one another, show respect, be encouraging, and bring correction when necessary (328). Despite the demands of a busy schedule, it is vital for senior pastors and associates to intentionally invest in their relationships so that they can realize their shared ministry goals in a supportive and compassionate environment.

Having served on three different pastoral staffs prior to becoming a lead pastor, I understand the importance of developing healthy relationships between senior and associate pastors. When a nurturing and trusting relationship has been developed, associates will support and sustain the senior pastor though many challenges and difficulties. Since there is a sense of unity and harmony among the pastoral team, when criticisms or complaints are levelled against one member of the pastoral staff, everyone stands together. However, when the senior pastor has not taken the time or effort to invest in developing authentic relationships with the pastoral associates and a pervasive sense of disconnect exists among the staff, the expectation of genuine loyalty to the senior pastor may not be as forthcoming when challenges emerge. Unfortunately, some senior pastors believe that they need to maintain a certain distance from their associates to maintain their level of authority. However, Goodall reminds senior pastors that, since Jesus considered himself to be friends with the disciples (Jn. 15:15), senior pastors should also regard their associates as friends and strive to build authentic relationships with each of them (327). When genuine friendships are cultivated, standing together though difficult times becomes a natural response as opposed to a professional obligation.

Another issue given considerable attention throughout the book is the concept of vision. Supported by the frequently repeated verse, “Where there is no vision, the people perish” (77, 220, 379, 477; Proverbs 29:18, KJV), a number of authors exhort pastors to have a clear vision for: the church (477), the pastor’s study (76), staff and associate job descriptions (420), and Christian education (426-428). Articles also instruct church leaders on how to develop, communicate, and maintain a vision in their local ministries. J. Don George, lead pastor at Calvary Temple in Irving, Texas, asserts that the essential element to growing the ministry of the church is through the formation and the strategic implementation of a vision. He states, “Great churches are not built without vision. Local churches do not continue growing without vision (477).” Of greater importance than a prime location, spacious facilities, state-of-the-art equipment, or any other of the modern devices that many believe are critical to church growth, George states that a well-articulated, easily understood, and functional vision is the one factor indispensable to fulfilling the Great Commission (477). According to George, having a vision is necessary for purposeful involvement, moral discipline, endurance, and ultimately success in the kingdom of God (477-8).

I contend however, that having a vision is not the key that unlocks the door to ministry success in the Pentecostal context. Although I do not dispute the importance of having a shared goal, it seems that the current trend in church leadership thinking suggests that merely developing and implementing a creative vision is the solution for growing the local assembly. Emulating the business world, vision has become a fashionable catchphrase among church growth proponents. Church growth is far more dependent on a number of complex variables than simply relying on a particular vision. The history, reputation, and emotional health of the church, inter-personal relationships among parishioners, financial pressures, community demographics and openness to the gospel are just a few of the factors that influence the potential for church growth. Moreover, having a vision cannot be a substitute for the ongoing discernment of the will of God. Suggesting that having a vision is the key ingredient to church growth is an flawed over-simplification and has likely distracted many pastors from seeking God for a “revelation” (Proverbs 29:18, NIV) that would begin to address some of the immense and persistent spiritual needs of their church and community.

Quotable Quote

“Yes, ministry to the body can break a pastor’s heart; it can drain strength; it can turn hair gray. But it is the highest honour that can be bestowed upon any person by the Lord of the Church. That divine franchise is, indeed, a distinct privilege (453).”

-Everett Stenhouse, Assistant General Superintendent for the AG (1986-1993)

Spiritual Gifts: A Fresh Look by David Lim

By William Sloos

Intending to provide a scholarly, yet practical study on the gifts of the Holy Spirit, Spiritual Gifts: A Fresh Look is an insightful resource for Pentecostal leaders interested in understanding the purpose and function of spiritual gifts within the local church. Written by David Lim, who is currently the lead pastor at one of the largest Assemblies of God churches in Singapore and former Bible college instructor at Western Pentecostal Bible College in Canada, the book takes readers from a thorough examination of the biblical text to practical instructions on the use of spiritual gifts within the body of Christ. Maintaining a holistic perspective that includes both concise biblical commentary and pastoral concerns, Lim aims to encourage churches to start exercising the gifts so they can experience Spirit-empowered ministry and guide churches already operating in the gifts so they can flourish in the fulfilment of their mission. Emphasizing that the gifts were never designed to be optional for the church, but are essential to the church’s function, Lim frames his theology of spiritual gifts within a missions-oriented theology. Geared towards empowering the church to reach the community, the patterns of the primitive church are rediscovered with the hope of equipping believers to flow in their particular gift mix to build up the body of Christ, love their neighbours, and proclaim the gospel.

Divided into two parts, the first part of the book is a biblical commentary on the gifts of the Holy Spirit from the book of 1 Corinthians. Chapters one and two focus on 1 Corinthians 12 and examine the problems that arose in the Corinthian church in their use of spiritual gifts. Highlighting how the Corinthians used the gifts of the Spirit to promote spiritual superiority within their ranks, Lim underscores how the gifts are intended to build, empower, and shape the church in an interdependent and loving environment. Building on this discussion, chapter three reviews 1 Corinthians 13 and reveals how love is the indispensable quality needed for the proper operation of the gifts. Concentrating on 1 Corinthians 14, chapter four explains the differences between the gifts, the value of the gifts, and the proper order of the gifts during the worship service. Concluding part one, chapter five harmonizes Paul’s teaching on the gifts from 1 Corinthians 12-14, Romans 12, and Ephesians 4 and reveals the interconnectedness of Paul’s theology regarding the operation of the gifts within the body of Christ.

The second part of the book is a summary of three sermons that analyze the practical functioning of the gifts within the contemporary church. Chapter six asserts that the expression of the gifts must not merely be an occasional incident, but should be an ongoing experience that is established on a lifestyle of worship and ministry. Emphasizing the prophethood of all believers, chapter seven reveals how to minister in the utterance gifts or “anointed speech gifts” and offers guidelines for their proper usage in a public service (246). Focussing on the Paul’s message to the Ephesians, chapter eight explains how worship empowers believers for mission and is a medium for gift ministry. The book concludes with a helpful discussion on the theology of healing, providing solid biblical basis for the claim that healing is in the atonement of Christ.

Analysis

An issue that has come to the forefront of pastoral theology in recent years has been the significance of the seeker sensitive movement largely advocated by Bill Hybels and the Willow Creek Association. Not wishing to introduce unbelievers or seekers to some of the more demonstrative elements of spirituality, the seeker sensitive movement has influenced Pentecostal churches to reduce or remove the operation of the utterance gifts from the public service. Contending that the gifts are meant to be experienced by everyone, including unbelievers and inquirers, Lim argues that every person should have the opportunity to witness the body of Christ operating in its full range of activities. “The Bible does not relegate the gifts to a corner of the church,” writes Lim, “rather it promotes their proper exercise and explanation (152)”. Instead of shielding unbelievers or seekers from the operation of the gifts of the Spirit, Lim suggests that through the proper exercise and explanation of these gifts, people can be convicted by the Holy Spirit and drawn to salvation. According to Lim, prophecy confronts people with the word of God and calls them to repentance; tongues and interpretation are miraculous signs of the presence of God and, though they may harden some hearts, they illicit a response that invites people to recognize that God is in their midst (159). Acknowledging the need for sensitivity and an environment of love and acceptance, Lim asserts that the anointed speech gifts are intended to function in the public service and are able to speak directly to the hearts of unbelievers to facilitate genuine repentance (162).

Another issue that befalls many Pentecostal and charismatic churches is the unwillingness to properly assess prophetic messages. Clearly emphasizing that all anointed utterances must be discerned by the body of Christ and must stand under the scrutiny of the Scriptures, Lim encourages churches to implement an evaluation matrix that effectively appraises prophetic utterances. Without devaluing the supernatural element within the prophecies, certain criteria must be met to affirm the public utterance gifts. Examining both the content of the message and the lifestyle of the messenger, Lim suggests that the “gifts should be evaluated as to Scriptural truth, application to the immediate hearers, the flow of the service, the discernment of the leadership, and the sensitivity of others to the Spirit (249).” Although such enquiry might curb the liberty of some people who believe the prophetic word should be unimpeded by these evaluations, with proper teaching and tender guidance, an environment can be established that is safe and receptive to the supernatural impartation of the word of God.

After reading the book and being thoroughly enriched by Lim’s capable exegesis and beneficial instruction, I have some questions regarding his theology of healing. First, regarding the gift of healing, Lim states that no one has the gift of healing, but rather the gift is given by God for specific situations and specific times. He goes on to say, “the one who prays for the sick person does not receive the gift; the one who receives the gift of healing is actually the sick person” (76). Although I agree that no one possesses the gift of healing, suggesting that the sick person is actually the one who receives the gift of healing seems to confuse the understanding of the nature of spiritual gifts. If the same logic is employed for the gift of prophecy, then the one who prophecies does not have the gift, but the ones who hear the prophecy receive the gift. I understand that being healed is a gift from God however it is not a spiritual gift according to 1 Corinthians 12 but rather the result of the proper functioning of the person with the gift of healing.

Second, Lim claims that it is always God’s will to heal with the qualifying statement, “unless God has a higher will for the immediate situation” (294). While I believe God’s intention is for the good of his creation, I find Lim’s claim is too simplistic and somewhat presumptuous. Suggesting it is always God’s will to heal unless he has a higher will for the immediate situation implies that God should heal more often than not heal. This claim overemphasizes the certainty of healing over the sovereignty of God and diminishes the sufficiency of grace during times of suffering.

Third, while people wait on God for their healing, Lim suggests that they “positionally claim total healing, practically claim progress” (292). Bordering on the confessional practices of the Word-Faith doctrine, Lim suggests that sick people declare themselves healed according to Jesus’ finished work on Calvary. Despite Lim’s optimistic theology, there is no evidence in the biblical text that anyone claims their healing without being completely healed. Why is it so difficult to admit that God has not healed? Paul and Silas did not positionally claim liberation from the prison; they worshipped God despite their chains. Paul did not positionally claim healing from his thorn; he leaned upon the sufficiency of God’s grace. Lim’s exhortation to positionally claim healing is an unbiblical and potentially harmful instruction that can cause believers to overlook the immense value of developing an honest and straightforward, yet trusting relationship with God in the midst of challenges and difficulties.

Quotable Quote

“Human as it is, the Church often adopts extremes. One extreme is a subjective, naïve use of the gifts that dismisses the rest of the Church as being unspiritual. The other extreme is to react to negative experiences by avoidance: The fire is feared because of possible wildfire, or, as the Chinese proverb puts it, we trim the toe to fit the shoe (273).

Blueprint for Change by David Cartledge

by William Sloos

David Cartledge, an Australian author and Pentecostal leader, speaking at an Assemblies of God (A/G) conference in 2002, shared how the apostolic movement has had a profound impact on the A/G in Australia.  His message, derived from his book “The Apostolic Revolution”, was geared to challenge the A/G in the United States to consider and embrace the office of apostle as a new model of church leadership and government.  Apostolic leadership, he contends, has transformed the church in Australia, citing a 700% increase in the number of churches and a 2000% increase in church attendance over the past twenty years.  With stirring language and deep conviction, he exhorts the conference to engage this new church governmental structure, believing it is the catalyst for growth and the answer for churches entrenched in bureaucracy and organizational inertia.

Underpinning Cartledge’s argument is the understanding that organizations have a way of watering down and destroying creativity, innovation, and progress (7).  He suggests that churches led by a congregational governmental structure are commonly resistant to change and are controlled by lay people who burn out pastors, imprison ministry gifts, and keep the church in a state of stagnancy (3).  He also states that these church organizations, in their attempts to protect themselves from failure and the resulting consequences, implement rules and regulations that foster mistrust among pastors and keep churches isolated from each other.  Under these conditions, churches become more interested in preserving the status quo than reaching and evangelizing their communities, creating a static environment that hinders growth and progress.  However, according to Cartledge, since the Australian A/G launched the apostolic model of church leadership in the late 1970’s, these confining and cumbersome elements were exchanged for a new unprecedented level of blessing and liberty that revolutionized the Pentecostal movement nationwide.

Cartledge states that the nature of this apostolic leadership model elects apostles who have a recognized leadership anointing, have “a unique impartation of the Word of Wisdom” and have the freedom to release people in their ministry gifts (3).  Though the apostles do not have a specific title, they do function similar to the New Testament model of apostleship that provides clear leadership, not by regulations and decrees, but by leading by example.  They are purposeful and intentional in their evangelism and church planting goals, with a strong emphasis on developing relationships and mentoring emerging leaders within their sphere of influence.  Instead of a “top down” mentality, where elected officials lead from behind their desks, apostles are directly involved in ministry and are often church planters themselves.  With this model, change is constant, growth is deliberate, and multiplication is expected and experienced throughout the movement. 

Reflection

The growth of the Australian A/G over the past twenty years is remarkable and their results are enviable for any organization.  Their effort to reduce cumbersome government structures and raise up Spirit-filled leaders with a passion for evangelism and church planting has borne tremendous fruit.  Empowering and releasing people in their ministry gifts are not only thoroughly biblical, but also life transforming for the participants.  Instead of upholding the status quo and towing the party line, leaders can lead, people can dream, and visions can be fulfilled.  They have reinvented themselves and are influencing and impacting their communities for Christ at a level not experienced in their history.

Cartledge illustrates how the former congregational governmental model in the Australian A/G was detrimental to the health and progress of the movement.  It was to blame for the abuse and demoralization of pastors and their families, the promotion of isolation and unwarranted regulations, and the “tyranny of the ministry gifts”, resulting in ministry futility throughout the denomination for many years (3).  He states that the Australian A/G has had a “tragic history”, but believes the new apostolic approach has turned the tide and ushered in a new era for the denomination.  However, any form of ecclesiastical government, whether congregational or apostolic, if permitted to operate at an unhealthy level for too long, such as the Australian A/G, can also create the same dire conditions.  As seen in the political world, there are dysfunction and abuse across a wide spectrum of governmental structures, from democracies to dictatorships and everything in between.  Thus, the issue may not be the type of governmental structure, but the nature and health of the governmental structure itself that has caused the static and lifeless conditions of the church’s history.

Though Cartledge notes how the “Apostolic Revolution” was birthed during a visitation by the Holy Spirit and essentially credits this paradigm shift for the changes in the Australian A/G, there are questions about the authority and function of the apostles within the organization.  For instance, what is the nature of the apostolic governmental structure in the Australian A/G?  How are apostles elected and how are they held accountable?  What level of authority do they hold and can their authority be challenged?  Do they operate unilaterally or are they bound by a system of checks and balances that sustain integrity within the organization?  Cartledge does not go into detail in his lecture to the conference delegates in Texas, however, if this new apostolic leadership model functions at an unrestrained level, there is certainly potential for serious problems.

Nevertheless, according to Cartledge, the apostolic experiment is now over twenty years old and is continuing to garner tremendous results.  If the present system of leadership is effective and beneficial to both pastors and churches, and people are being transformed by the gospel, then this model is something worth exploring for other denominations who find themselves in similar circumstances.  Though there are inherent dangers in the apostolic governmental model, no model is perfect, nor should any church or organization be too attached to any one model and neglect learning from one another.  In the end, however, regardless of whether church leaders function as apostles or any other description, there must be accountability, integrity, and humility that reflects the leadership model of Christ at every level.

A Baker's Dozen and Many More by Roger Stronstad

by William Sloos

Roger Stronstad’s article, A Baker’s Dozen and Many More: Observations on the Roles of Apostles and Prophets, is a brief study examining the biblical understanding of apostles and prophets and applying the data to the doctrines and teachings of the “Apostolic Movement” occurring in the evangelical/charismatic church today.  The author begins by defining the term “apostolos”, meaning, “sent one”, or according to the Septuagint (LXX), “a messenger from God” (3).  He subsequently explores the common uses of the word in the New Testament, describing the apostolic ministry of John the Baptist, and the greater apostolic ministry of Jesus Christ, noting both were men “sent” from God for a specific purpose.  Jesus, having been the divine apostle, becomes the “apostle-maker” and appoints twelve apostles, commissioning them to go out in the world preaching repentance, casting out demons, and healing the sick (6).  After the death and resurrection of Christ, the apostles appoint Matthais to replace Judas, and later Jesus himself adds Paul to those functioning under the apostolic authority.

Stronstad suggests there are at least five factors that outline the criteria of the office of the apostle in the New Testament.  These factors include: 1) receiving a direct call from Jesus, 2) being an eyewitness to the ministry of Christ, 3) having a divinely appointed mission, 4) being an eyewitness to the resurrection, and 5) being empowered to perform miracles, signs, and wonders (25).  These conditions were met by the twelve apostles and, except for Paul, can not be applied to later apostles since the criteria is time sensitive and can only pertain to those who have been with Jesus.  Thus, the apostolic authority that rested upon these twelve men and Paul ended when they past away and cannot be activated or confirmed upon others within the church age, nor can there be successors to the apostolic anointing.

Regarding Paul’s apostleship, though he is not identified as an apostle in Acts and was not an eyewitness to the ministry of Christ, he identifies himself as an apostle in his epistles and is among those considered to have an apostolic appointment.  Since he was a late convert to Christianity, it was impossible for him to have been an eyewitness of Jesus’ ministry, but his conversion experience with the resurrected Christ and his subsequent commission qualifies him for the office of apostle under the same mantle as the twelve.  Aside from not being an eyewitness to the ministry of Jesus, he does meet the remaining apostolic standards including receiving a divine call and mission, and the ability to performed signs and wonders (10).  Thus, Paul is part of the divinely appointed apostolic authority of the New Testament, enabling him to give leadership to the fledging churches across Asia Minor under the anointing of the Holy Spirit.

However, there are references to other apostles not numbered among the twelve and Paul, such as Barnabas, Andronicus and Junia, Silvanus and Timothy, but Stronstad argues that they function as missionaries, or “sent ones”.  Essentially, they have a supportive role, appointed to assist the apostles and the churches, and are not to be considered among those who have received a divine appointment from Jesus to spread the gospel.  Consequently Stronstad argues that there are two uses of the word “apostle” in the New Testament, the twelve and Paul- who make up the exclusive “baker’s dozen”, and those who serve in an apostolic function but are a part of the apostolic office.

Additionally, Stronstad discusses the role of prophecy in the New Testament, observing that the day of Pentecost was a point of transfer, where the resurrected Jesus, who was Spirit-led, Spirit-empowered, and Spirit-anointed, pours out the Holy Spirit upon his disciples, empowering them to be a prophetic witness for Christ to the ends of the earth.  He notes that this experience is an extension of Jesus’ prophetic ministry, and is “programmatic” for the entire church (20).  Even though the apostles and Paul operate in the prophetic anointing, Paul notes that prophecy was “one of the most prominent gifts in the church in Corinth” and was not limited to an exclusive group, but was for all the people of God (23).  Thus, Stronstad concludes that the office of apostle is limited to the twelve apostles and Paul, and ceased with their deaths but the gift of the Spirit of prophecy is not restricted to the apostolic age but continues throughout the church age (27).

Reflection

Stonstad states that the apostolic age ended with the death of the apostles and, according to the Bible, cannot possibly function in the church today.  Though there is a movement to restore the office of the apostle in the contemporary church, the author passionately defends his position by asserting the there is no contextual evidence that would suggest that the apostles were meant to continue as divinely appointed leaders of the church.  Those who suggest otherwise are engaging in faulty hermeneutics and their biblical interpretations are, as the author notes, “built on a foundation of sand” (26).

Though relegated to footnotes, he reviews the two texts that the proponents of the office of apostle and prophet use to justify their practices, namely the “foundation” reference in Ephesians 2:20 and the “five-fold” reference in 4:11.  Since the criteria for apostleship, by Paul’s own definition, is impossible to fulfill today (1 Co. 15:8), these texts must only refer to the ministry of the apostles and prophets during the time of Paul’s ministry and are not meant to be applied after the apostolic age.  Thus, biblical evidence seems to indicate that the offices of apostle and prophet have no place in the contemporary church and is a misinterpretation of Scripture by those promoting this new model of church governance.

If what Stronstad is suggesting is true, what are the implications for churches who embrace this extra-biblical model of ministry?  If churches are restoring the office of apostle and prophet and granting a level of authority beyond biblical parameters, it appears that these churches could be unwittingly engaging in unorthodox or pseudo-ecclesiastical practice at best, and at worst, heresy.  If these churches are submitting to the authority of the apostle and prophet, they are inadvertently putting themselves in a position where Biblical principles could be threatened and even undermined.  Though appearing to be “of the Spirit”, this apostolic renewal could lead these churches down a path to destruction, bringing to mind Peter’s warning about the false teachers who will “secretly bring in destructive heresies…and many will follow their destructive ways” (2 Pet. 1-3, NKJV).

Stronstad’s article illuminates the biblical evidence regarding prophets and apostles in the New Testament and exposes the faulty interpretations of those who promote the office of apostle and prophet in the contemporary church.  His work illustrates the importance of exegetical study and proper biblical interpretation and enables the church to make wise decisions, not based on the latest fads and trends, but on the authority of Scripture.  Though churches who have adopted the office of prophet and apostle claim that this new approach is modeled after the New Testament and has rejuvenated their ministries, they are vulnerable to the failings of the individuals they empower, opening the door to division and deception within the body of Christ.

The Gift of Prophecy by Wayne Grudem

by William Sloos

Wayne Gruden’s book, The Gift of Prophecy in the New Testament and Today, is a comprehensive and biblical review of prophecy in the Scriptures.  With balanced hermeneutical methods, he unveils the nature of the Old Testament prophets, the prophetic ministry of the New Testament, and the value and practice of prophecy in the contemporary church.  Combining sound deductive reasoning with a relevant didactic approach, he also discusses the issues that have emerged within evangelical Christianity regarding the office of apostle and prophet, clearly rejecting their contemporary usage with solid exegetical evidence.  He also tackles those who position themselves on both sides of the spiritual gift spectrum- the “cessationists”, who believe that the prophetic gifts are no longer for today, and those in the charismatic camp who place an overemphasis on prophecy.  He strikes a practical balance, encouraging both sides to take a closer look at the biblical data and be receptive to a new approach.  With Scriptural safeguards in place, he also encourages those who have never been exposed to the gifts of prophecy to expand their understanding and be open to the experience of the Holy Spirit in their lives.

Beginning in the Old Testament, Grudem states that the prophets functioned as messengers from God who spoke with absolute divine authority.  Since the prophets’ words were the very words of God, the messages were beyond challenge and demanded strict obedience.  However, in the New Testament, the apostles took over where the Old Testament prophets left off.  Citing a number of parallels, Gruden notes how the apostles were divinely appointed, spoke with absolute divine authority, and wrote the inspired books that make up the canon of the New Testament (27-29, 235).  Though the apostolic ministry ended when the apostles passed away, the outpouring of the Holy Spirit on the Day of Pentecost bestowed the gifts of the Spirit upon the church, enabling people to prophesy revealed messages from the Lord.  Though the nature of the gift of prophecy is delivered through imperfect human means and requires evaluation by the church, it is for the church’s benefit and is intended to be in operation until the return of Christ.

Reflection

Grudem, as an ordained Baptism pastor, is surprisingly refreshing in his approach toward spiritual gifts.  He repeatedly highlights Paul’s exhortation in 1 Corinthians to “eagerly desire” the gifts of the Holy Spirit and especially the gift of prophecy.  Throughout the book, he highlights how prophecy is intentionally designed for the “upbuilding”, encouragement, and comfort of the church and is a ministry all believers can potentially participate in and develop through sound biblical teaching and the leading of the Holy Spirit (140).

Regarding the controversial issue of the office of the prophet in the contemporary church, Grudem provides a number of biblical examples that deny the existence of the office of the prophet even in the early church.  He states that there is no evidence of tension between the gift of prophecy and the office of prophet anywhere in the New Testament (157).  In other words, there did not exist any privileged group who held a leadership position over those who had a prophetic gift among the churches.  He also states that no one had the ability to prophesy at will, but the gift of prophecy was instead a spontaneous gift, used whenever someone received a revelation from the Holy Spirit (170).  Additionally, Grudem notes how the prophetic gift was something that could mature and develop through faith, and was not something someone had ownership of, emphasizing the “progressive” over the “possessive” nature of prophecy in the New Testament (175).  Thus, the office of prophet was not in operation in the early church and is therefore incongruent with the context of the contemporary church.

The author also illustrates how the gift of prophecy, or congregational prophecy, was never considered on the same level with Scripture.  Instead, prophetic utterances were subject to the authority of Scripture and the careful evaluation of the church (209).  He provides five different examples in the New Testament where prophecy was placed in a subordinate role to Scripture, citing how the church is called to “test” and “weigh” prophetic words, and how, on at least two occasions, prophecy was either inaccurate or disregarded (286).  The nature of prophecy in the New Testament is thus, not authoritative, but is instead the impartation of divine revelation conveyed to and through an imperfect human being, or as Grudem defines it as, “an unreliable human speech-act in response to a revelation from the Holy Spirit” (76). 

The author’s description of apostles, as an exclusive group of divinely appointed and empowered men who operated under the same authority as the Old Testament prophets, is a novel perspective that has significant theological implications for the evangelical church.  If it is true that the apostles held a divinely appointed position that enabled them to preach repentance, deliver people from demons, and heal the sick with greater authority and spiritual power than the rest of the church, then any contemporary teaching that suggests that the believer has the same authority as the apostles would be inaccurate.  As an example, the passage in Matthew 10, where Jesus gives his disciples authority to drive out evil spirits and to heal every disease and sickness, is often preached and applied to contemporary Christians who believe they too, possess the same authority for deliverance and healing in their own context.  However, if this authority was only granted to the apostles, who operated under a parallel authority to the Old Testament prophets, this exclusive authority cannot be applied to other followers of Christ.  Though there are other passages in Scripture that denote the believer’s authority in Jesus’ name, Christians would be in error if they appropriated apostle-only passages and applied them to their own lives.  However, since this is a common belief among evangelicals, could these Christians have a false sense of spiritual authority, believing they have the same authority as the apostles?  Though Grudem does not address these issues, his theological understanding of apostles necessitates a reexamination of how certain apostle-only New Testament passages are personally applied in the contemporary church.

Another area that Grudem discusses is the role of women in regards to prophesying and judging prophecies in the church.  He states that New Testament teaching clearly encourages women to participate fully in the prophetic gifts but forbids them, or exhorts them to “keep silent” with regards to the evaluation of the prophetic words.  Paul’s instructions, though considered gender disparate by the current cultural context, conversely highlights the inclusive nature of the gifts of the Holy Spirit.  Understanding that the divinely imparted message is filtered through the human mind, men and women will prophecy differently, according to the uniqueness of their gender, enabling a creative interpretative method that has the ability to speak intimately and powerfully to everyone in the church.  Though the ecclesiastical leadership roles differ when it comes to judging the validity of the prophecies, the prophetic gifts are equally available to both genders and are designed to operate corporately and speak personally.

Grudem has also confirmed most, if not all, of the commonly held doctrines regarding prophecy in The Pentecostal Assemblies of Canada (PAOC).  Though there are divergent opinions at times, generally speaking, the PAOC has historically promoted the operation of the public gifts of prophecy in the local church.  They have also emphasized that prophetic utterances are not considered the word of God, but are merely human words about something that God has brought to mind.  The PAOC has also encouraged the evaluation of prophecies according to Paul’s teaching in 1 Corinthians, with the right to reject utterances that do not build up or encourage the church.  The primacy of Scripture has been maintained and continues to be the only divinely inspired authority of the revealed will of God.  Though people have attempted to bring new revelations or teachings about prophecy, the traditional views remain consistent with the teachings of Scripture for the benefit of the local church.

{C}

A Review of Anthony D. Palma's View of Spirit Baptism

by William Sloos

Subsequence

Despite the opinions of many scholars who contend that there is no distinct and identifiable charismatic experience of the Spirit apart from regeneration, Palma provides solid and convincing biblical evidence of a post-conversion Spirit-baptism that was not only taught but also experienced in the early church. Engaging in a Pentecostal hermeneutic that employs the medium of history to convey theological truths, Palma explores all the narrative examples of Spirit baptism in the Lukan texts and identifies specific characteristics and patterns that clearly indicate a Pentecostal experience subsequent to salvation. He demonstrates how the outpouring of the Holy Spirit on the Day of Pentecost (Acts 2; Joel 2) is programmic for the early church and establishes a paradigm of post-conversion Pentecostal experiences that empower believers for evangelism. Following the Day of Pentecost, the author examines the Samaritan Pentecost (Acts 8:14-20), Saul’s Spirit-baptism (Acts 9:17), Cornelius and his household’s Spirit-baptism (Acts 10:44-48), and the Ephesians’ Pentecost (Acts 19:1-7). From his inductive study, Palma observes that in three of the five narratives surveyed (Acts 8; 9; 19), those who had an observable charismatic experience were already converted for some time. In the two remaining narratives, though they do not explicitly state that conversion preceded the baptism in the Holy Spirit, conversion prior to Spirit-baptism is implied (Acts 2; 10). The emerging pattern clearly indicates that there is an experience in the Holy Spirit that is separate from and subsequent to conversion that was occurring among the believers in early church.

Responding to scholars who have opposing opinions, Palma confronts their arguments with a reasonable and convincing explanation of the biblical texts in question. In response to Bruner’s and Haenchen’s contention that the Spirit-baptism of the Samaritan converts (Acts 8) was the exception that proves the rule (the rule being that believers receive the Spirit at the time of conversion), Palma reminds readers that Luke never denies the indwelling work of the Spirit at the time of regeneration, but rather seeks to highlight the distinct nature of the charismatic experience subsequent to salvation. Other scholars, such as Dunn and Hoekema, who argue that the Samaritans were not regenerated at the time of their Spirit-baptism but were actually receiving salvation instead of a subsequent Pentecostal experience, Palma notes that Luke records that the Samaritans had previously “accepted the word of God,” a phrase synonymous with genuine conversion throughout the Lukan narratives. Despite the contrary viewpoints of other scholars, Palma is successful at defending the doctrine of subsequence by mapping the patterns present in the biblical accounts and providing sufficient evidence to support the understanding of Spirit-baptism as an experience subsequent to conversion.

Initial Evidence

Beginning his defence of the doctrine of tongues as the initial evidence of Spirit-baptism, Palma highlights how inspired utterance occurs when the Holy Spirit comes upon people throughout biblical history. When Joel’s prophecy was fulfilled on the Day of Pentecost and the disciples were baptized in the Holy Spirit, they responded with inspired utterance in the form of tongues-speaking. Following the Day of Pentecost, the narrative theology of the book of Acts consistently repeats the pattern of tongues-speaking as the initial evidence of Spirit-baptism, establishing a normative paradigm for believers in the early church. Despite the fact that nowhere in the Scriptures is there a propositional statement identifying tongues as the initial evidence of Spirit-baptism, Palma highlights how “all” the people spoke in tongues in Acts 2 (also see Acts 10), suggesting that tongues is regarded as the immediate empirical manifestation that authenticates the Pentecostal experience.

Evident from Palma’s book, there are numerous scholars who oppose the concept of tongues being the initial evidence of Spirit-baptism. Objecting to the notion of initial evidence, Carson states that Luke records several places where individuals are said to be filled with the Spirit without any indication of the evidence of tongues. Responding to Carson, Palma suggests that Luke did not feel obligated to mention tongues explicitly at every single occasion of Spirit-baptism, but cumulative evidence within the text undeniably supports the doctrine of initial evidence. Carson also suggests that if tongues is the initial evidence of Spirit-baptism, the evidence of wind and fire should also be normative signs present in the Pentecostal experience. However, unlike the evidence of tongues which is identified or strongly implied in numerous texts, wind and fire were only present on the Day of Pentecost and are not mentioned anywhere else in the narrative where people are Spirit-baptized. Dunn, another scholar who opposes the Pentecostal doctrine of initial evidence, contends that, though Luke intended to portray tongues as the initial evidence of Spirit-baptism, Luke’s accounts are “crude” and “undiscriminating,” emphasizing Luke’s unbalanced and rather undependable theology. However, for those who have a high view of Scripture, Luke’s descriptions of the early church’s post-conversion encounters with the Holy Spirit are divinely inspired and more than adequate for the formation of doctrine. Despite these and other opposing voices, Palma presents a biblically sound and convincing defence of the doctrine of tongues as the initial evidence of the Spirit-baptism and considers the manifestation of tongues normative for every believer who receives the Pentecostal experience.

Fields White Unto Harvest: Charles F. Parham and the Missionary Origins of Pentecostalism by James R. Goff, Jr.

by William Sloos

Summary

Examining the fascinating life and ministry of Charles Fox Parham, Fields White Unto Harvest: Charles F. Parham and the Missionary Origins of Pentecostalism is a well-researched and readable biographical account of one of the early pioneers of the Pentecostal movement in America. Written by James R. Goff, professor of history at Appalachian State University, the book explores how Parham quickly rose to the forefront of the pre-Azusa Pentecostal movement only to dramatically fall into scandal and obscurity in the latter half of his life. Set against the greater backdrop of the spiritually-charged atmosphere of the late nineteenth and early twentieth centuries, Goff attempts to strip away some of the romantic varnish that has prevented Pentecostals from clearly analyzing the socio-theological trends that gave birth to the movement. Rather than being divinely initiated by a spontaneous move of the Holy Spirit, Goff argues that the early Pentecostal movement was forged out of the harsh realities of life on the American frontier. With Parham as the recognized leader of the fledgling charismatic sect, people were provided with intensely personal spiritual experiences that transcended their earthly problems, satisfied their apocalyptic sentiments, and created an atmosphere of divine intervention. As Parham tirelessly organized Pentecostal meetings across the Mid-west, he preached salvation, articulated the movements’ doctrines, prayed for the sick and suffering, created the first periodical, and issued the first credentials. Moreover, Parham was the first to identify tongues as the initial evidence of the baptism in the Holy Spirit, a distinctive that would later be adopted by the majority of Pentecostals. Despite his early leadership of the movement, Parham would make some questionable decisions and would eventually fade from the scene. Wishing to  and be forgotten by the movement, Goff attempts to rehabilitate Parham as the progenitor of Pentecostalism in America.

Reflection

Goff’s argument that Parham is the founder of the Pentecostal movement is plausible, but it is also easy to understand why Pentecostals are unwilling to embrace him as the father of their faith. Besides his failed attempt to wrestle the leadership of the Azusa Street revival out of the hands of William Seymour and his hostile takeover bid for Zion City, Parham endorsed some unorthodox theologies that the majority of Pentecostals would later reject. First, Parham intensely disagreed with William H. Durham and his Finished Work theory that claimed that sanctification actually occurred at conversion rather than through a subsequent crisis experience. Since Parham had always believed and taught a three-stage work of grace comprised of conversion, sanctification, and the baptism in the Holy Spirit, he considered Durham’s teaching heretical and destructive to the unity of the developing Pentecostal movement. Persuaded that Durham’s theology was false, Parham prayed that God would prove the proper doctrine by taking the life of the one who was teaching error. When Durham died of tuberculosis six months later, Parham was confident that God had honoured his prayers and affirmed the true doctrine (152).

Second, Parham’s theology of water baptism contributed to the emergence of the oneness schism in Pentecostalism. A few years before Canadian Pentecostal R. E. McAlister preached that converts should be baptized in the name of Jesus only at Arroyo Seco, CA in 1913, Parham wrestled with the different Scripture references for the water baptismal formula until finally settling on a strange hybrid version that leaned towards a Jesus-only approach (152). When the oneness proponents separated from the larger Pentecostal body in 1916 and developed a unitarian view of the Godhead, they found a receptive audience among Parham’s followers who were familiar with his alternative baptismal formula.

A third issue that separated Parham from mainstream Pentecostalism was his view that the wicked will not suffer eternally in hell but will be annihilated. Introduced to the annihilation theory by Quaker teacher David Baker, Parham was taught that the traditional doctrine of eternal punishment was unbiblical. Immortality was a gift given only to the righteous and, though the unredeemed would suffer in the afterlife, their punishment would ultimately end in their total destruction. Concluding that Baker was correct in his theological assumptions, Parham adopted these views and taught them as biblical truth throughout his ministry (35). Despite his considerable influence in the burgeoning Pentecostal movement however, Parham’s arguments for the doctrine of conditional immorality were never accepted by the majority of Pentecostals.

In addition to his unorthodox theologies, Pentecostal leaders would further separate themselves from any affiliation to Parham following his alleged homosexual affair in Texas in 1907. If there was any consideration given to Parham as the founder of the Pentecostal movement, it ended here. From this point forward, Parham was an embarrassment to the fellowship and was largely ignored. Although Goff intends to show how Parham should be regarded as the father of Pentecostalism, rumours of immoral activity, coupled with his peculiar doctrines eliminated any existing perceptions of him as the founder of the Pentecostal movement. Undoubtedly, Parham’s eccentric beliefs and alleged immoral behaviour contributed to the prevailing Pentecostal notion to look to the Holy Spirit and not to any one person as the founder of the faith.

Kol Kare Bomidbar: A Voice Crying in the Wilderness by Charles F. Parham

by William Sloos

Summary

Originally published in 1902, Kol Kare Bomidbar: A Voice Crying in the Wilderness is one of the earliest book length theological commentaries on Pentecostal faith and experience to appear in print. Written by Pentecostal pioneer Charles Fox Parham, the book is a passionate, plain spoken and somewhat folksy discourse on a variety of topics pertaining to the spiritual, social, political, and eschatological ethos of the time. The strange title of the book is a Hebrew transliteration of “a voice crying in the wilderness” taken from Isaiah 40:3 and aptly reflects Parham’s self-image as a forerunner of a great spiritual awakening prior to the return of Christ. Since the baptism in the Holy Spirit with the evidence of speaking in tongues surfaced at his Bible school just a year prior to the writing of the book, Parham devotes a substantial portion of the book to the development of his theory of initial evidence which would become a defining doctrinal distinctive in the emerging Pentecostal movement. Additionally, Parham also urges his readers to embrace the literal truths of Scripture and the power of the Holy Spirit in light of the unfolding of Bible prophecy and the approaching millennium.

The book opens with a preface claiming that the contents of the book should be regarded as “providential,” followed by a second preface added eight years later which explains that the book is not infallible and may contain “many” errors (3-5).  With such a qualification, Parham is able to straddle the lines of divine revelation and creative speculation, knowing that if what he writes actually materializes, he can claim to have personally heard from God; if his conjecture falls short, he can easily chalk it up to human limitations. The eight year gap between prefaces may also have revealed that some of Parham’s original interpretations of Bible prophecy may not have been panning out as he had initially envisioned and, by adding the disclaimer, he is able to lessen his responsibility for some of his more eccentric claims. Following the two prefaces and a forward by his wife, the book is divided into twenty chapters with the first eight primarily devoted to the practical theology and the remaining twelve chapters focussed on eschatology. Included in his discourse on eschatology, Parham discusses some of his more controversial beliefs such as Anglo-Israelism (91), his two-race creation theory (which led to his understanding of the superiority of the white race and his anti-miscegenation views) (83), and America’s impending apocalyptic downfall (118). Although Reading Parham’s theological reflections through contemporary lenses makes him appear fanatical and xenophobic, his views were not that dissimilar from other religious theorists of his era. The Jim Crows laws, Darwin’s Origin of the Species, and the collective myth of America’s Manifest Destiny all contributed to the thinking of the time and undoubtedly influenced Parham’s interpretation of the Scriptures.

Reflection

Critical to understanding Parham’s contribution to the development of Pentecostal theology is his doctrine on the baptism in the Holy Spirit. First, Parham taught that those who have been baptized in the Holy Spirit always speak in tongues (26). Contrary to those who claim Spirit-baptism because they shouted, groaned, experienced trances, or other ecstatic manifestations, Parham believed that wild fanaticism was not proof of the Pentecostal outpouring; tongues were the biblical evidence that authenticated the baptism in the Holy Spirit. Second, Parham resolutely asserted that tongues were actual spoken languages and were specifically given to speed up global evangelism prior to the return of Christ. Just as the apostles declared the works of God in foreign languages following the day of Pentecost, Parham argued that Spirit-filled believers would also be able to speak unlearned languages and proclaim the gospel in foreign lands without having to worry about linguistic studies (28). Parham’s perspective that tongues were exclusively xenolalic was not uncommon during the early years of the Pentecostal movement. However the doctrine did not stand up to empirical testing and, after a number of failed attempts by eager missionaries, Pentecostals dropped the “missionary tongues” claim and settled upon glossolalia as a more likely product of tongues-speech. Third, Parham taught that the baptism in the Holy Spirit served as an eschatological “sealing,” protecting believers from the coming plagues and persecutions of the end-times (30). Guaranteeing entranced into the “Bride of Christ,” only those who had received Spirit-baptism are insulated from the attacks of the Anti-Christ, making the experience essential for all believers desiring to escape the impending tribulation.

In addition to his view of Spirit-baptism, Parham’s doctrine of divine healing was also a central feature of his Pentecostal theology (40-42). For Parham, all sickness and disease is caused by Satan and is received through inbreeding, familial inheritance, or the sins of omission and commission. Persuaded that healing is available in the atonement of Christ, Parham taught that all believers who repent of their sins and exercise their faith will be healed. For those who remain unhealed, it is clear that there is unconfessed sin or a lack of faith that has prevented their healing. Furthermore, Parham argued that there is a direct relationship between the advancement of medical science and the increase of apostasy in America and exhorted his readers to avoid medical treatment and simply trust in Christ for their healing. Despite some of his extreme healing views, Parham’s healing ministry attracted many people to his revival meetings and allowed him to transmit his unique brand of Pentecostal theology to receptive audiences across the Mid-west.

Thinking in the Spirit: Theologies of the Early Pentecostal Movement by Douglas Jacobsen

by William Sloos

Summary

Aiming to provide contemporary readers with an understanding of early Pentecostal theology, Thinking in the Spirit: Theologies of the Early Pentecostal Movement explores the religious ideas that dominated the beginnings of the burgeoning Pentecostal movement in the first quarter of the twentieth-century. Written by Douglas Jacobsen, professor of Church History and Theology at Messiah College and admitted non-Pentecostal, the book examines the writings of twelve of the movement’s most prominent representatives who articulated their own unique understanding of the emerging Pentecostal faith. Coming from diverse religious, social, and geographical backgrounds, each of the early Pentecostal thinkers attempted to define their faith in light of the restoration of the baptism in the Holy Spirit. Borrowing theological concepts and ideas from other religious sources and reinterpreting them to correspond to their new charismatic experience, these proletarian theologians invented a new Pentecostal language of faith to assist other Pentecostals in understanding the work of God’s Holy Spirit in the world. Although the Pentecostal movement quickly coalesced into various denominations and formulated well-established theological frameworks, the theories of the early Pentecostal spokespersons laid the foundation for the development of Pentecostal theology and continue to influence contemporary religious thinking.

Following Jacobsen’s introduction where he articulates his understanding of Pentecostal theology, the book is divided into six chapters that are arranged according to an innovative chronological and thematic schema. Chapter one contains the pre-Pentecostal theologies of Charles Parham and Richard Spurling who theorized about the various visible evidences of the baptism in the Holy Spirit in the lives of believers. Focussing on the Azusa era, chapter two explores the ideas of William Seymour, George Taylor, and Canadian theologian David Wesley Myland who each uniquely explain their understanding of Pentecostal faith in the midst of revival. Chapters three and four describe the particular doctrines of William Durham (finished work), Joseph H. King (holiness), Garfield T. Haywood and Andrew Urshan (oneness) that polarized the fledgling Pentecostal movement and ultimately partitioned adherents along doctrinal lines. Since American Pentecostalism emerged during the Jim Crow laws of racial segregation, chapter five explores the innovative theology of Robert C. Lawson who actively promoted racial inclusiveness among Pentecostal fellowships. Concentrating on the fringe personalities of the movement, the final chapter of the book surveys the extreme theologies of F.F. Bosworth and E. W. Kenyon, whose ideas continue to shape the Word-Faith and Prosperity Gospel movements.

Reflection

At the outset of the book, Jacobsen lays the groundwork for his study by defining the essential nature and characteristics of Pentecostal theology. First, countering the commonly held myth that early Pentecostalism was merely focussed on spiritual experience and had little interest in theological truth, Jacobsen contends that theology was central to the movement’s progress and development. Despite William Seymour’s caution that the Azusa revival was getting caught up in “talking thought” rather than seeking God for the power of the Holy Spirit, the early Pentecostals were convinced that experience guided by theology was critical to the success and vitality of the faith (2). Consequently, first generation Pentecostals continually locked horns with each other about how to best describe their experiences, creating an eclectic collage of religious ideas of varying degrees of plausibility. Second, Jacobsen also demonstrates that virtually all of the early Pentecostal theologians were amateurs rather than the seminary trained theologians of other more established Protestant traditions. Although these untrained and “folksy” novices left much to be desired when it came to grammar and style, they supplied a never ending flow of out-of-the-box thinking that appealed to many people who had grown weary of the indolent and supercilious theologies of the religious elites. Third, although it appears that the early Pentecostal movement became fragmented due to its abundance of incongruent theologies, Jacobsen argues that early Pentecostalism was never united under any particular theological meta-model. Rather than viewing early Pentecostalism as a disintegrated body, it is better understood as a dynamic movement that continually struggled to articulate their dramatic spiritual experiences within the spiritually-charged revivalist culture of the early twentieth century. Though most Pentecostal leaders strived for unity among their ranks, they placed great value on possessing correct theology, inevitably leading to a pluralisation of the movement that continues to exist today.

Despite the plethora of divergent theological opinions existent within early Pentecostalism, there are also numerous consistencies. One particular consistency that developed among early Pentecostal thinkers was the link between Spirit-baptism and eschatological suffering and persecution. Parham and Seymour asserted that all Christians would have to endure the Great Tribulation, but those who had experienced Spirit-baptism would be protected from suffering (37, 39). Taylor contended that the baptism in the Holy Spirit would be the dividing line between true believers and unbelievers and that persecution of Pentecostals was to be expected. Those who had received Spirit-baptism however, were sealed by God and would be preserved from suffering in the end-times (91-101). With an ominous tone, Durham foresaw a day when Pentecostals would be lying dead in the streets, persecuted for their spiritually empowered witness of Christ throughout the world (146). Considering these dire prognostications, it is interesting to see how Pentecostal theology has matured over the past century and has distanced itself from a theology of eschatological suffering and persecution to embrace a less worrisome pre-tribulation rapture theology and a congenial relationship with other Christian traditions.

A Reader in Pentecostal Theology: Voices from the First Generation Edited by Douglas Jacobsen

by William Sloos

Summary

A Reader in Pentecostal Theology: Voices from the First Generation is a compilation of theological texts from sixteen prominent leaders in the early Pentecostal movement in America. Edited by Douglas Jacobsen, this insightful anthology introduces contemporary readers to the original voices that contributed to the development of the various doctrines and ideas that influenced the theology of first generation Pentecostals. With the widespread emergence of the baptism in the Holy Spirit and the controversial experience of speaking in tongues at the turn of the twentieth century, these sixteen neophyte theologians took up the pen and attempted to explain the phenomena and address the numerous theological opinions that constantly swirled around the fledgling movement. In the introduction of the book, Jacobsen describes the roots of Pentecostalism and the nature of early Pentecostal thought among its prominent pioneers. Despite their highly emotive spiritual experiences, Jacobsen argues that the early Pentecostals continually evaluated their post-conversion experiences in light of the biblical text. With an emphasis on possessing right theology, many of them reached alternative conclusions about the Pentecostal experience which inevitably sparked a considerable amount of conflict and disagreement within the movement. Although unity was desired, the struggle to understand this new encounter of God’s Spirit created an intensely pluralistic theological environment with many competing voices. Following the introduction, Jacobsen profiles these sixteen influential Pentecostal thinkers, opening each chapter with a brief biography of the individual followed by a number of fascinating excerpts from their writings. The following refection will highlight three early Pentecostal pioneers whose doctrines dramatically influenced Pentecostal theology.

Reflection

 Sometimes called the father of Pentecostal theology, Charles Fox Parham was the first person to articulate the doctrine that speaking in tongues was the initial physical evidence of the baptism in the Holy Spirit. According to Parham, prior to the Christmas break in 1900, he assigned his Bible school students the task of searching the Scriptures for the evidence of the baptism in the Holy Spirit rather than listen to the travelling Bible teachers who had their own theories about the Pentecostal experience. While the students were studying the Scriptures and praying for their own Spirit-baptism, Agnes Ozman received the Pentecostal experience accompanied by speaking in tongues. Since her experience corresponded with the biblical text, Parham was persuaded that speaking in tongues was a normative expectation for those seeking the experience. Regardless of the various signs or manifestations that others claimed, Parham argued that unless there is the “Bible evidence” of tongues speech, the authentic Pentecostal experience has yet to be received (35). Despite having some alternative theories about the nature and characteristics of tongues speech that would prove largely unreliable, Parham’s initial evidence theory would appeal to many Pentecostals and would eventually become a distinctive doctrine in many Pentecostal denominations.

Another defining feature of early Pentecostal theology was when William H. Durham contended that sanctification as a second work of grace was biblically erroneous. Contrary to the traditional holiness doctrine that claimed that sanctification was an experience subsequent to salvation that eradicates the sin nature, Durham argued that conversion and sanctification were combined together into a single experience of full salvation (84). Described as the “finished work of Calvary,” Durham asserted that when sinners are converted, they enter into a state of holiness through faith in the atonement of Christ. Rather than seeking a second work of sanctification to eliminate the inherited sin nature, believers are completely cleansed from their sins and are to persevere in the faith to overcome temptation until their glorification. For Durham, the baptism in the Holy Spirit with the initial evidence of speaking in tongues was the only experience subsequent to salvation that was supported by the Scriptures. Although he had many ardent Pentecostal-holiness proponents who adamantly disagreed with him, Durham was unmoved in his convictions and passionately defended his soteriological perspective. Despite his untimely death, many Pentecostal leaders concurred with his teachings and adopted his theology as part of their doctrinal statements.

A third doctrine that dramatically influenced Pentecostal theology was emergence of the “Jesus-only” movement that rejected the traditional view of the Trinity and opted for an “oneness” view of the Godhead. Although most Pentecostals rebuffed this new teaching, Andrew David Urshan and Garfield Thomas Haywood would articulate these doctrines and attract a considerable number of followers. While in an all-night prayer meeting in 1910, Urshan and his colleagues received a new revelation revealing that water baptism was only to be administered in the name of Jesus. This illumination developed into a radical new theology that Jesus is the single name of the Father, the Son, and the Holy Spirit, or in other words, Jesus is the one name of the “three-in-one” God (155). After Haywood was convinced of this new doctrine, he began teaching that being born of the Spirit and Spirit-baptism are synonymous and should be understood as a single conversion experience that involved being salvation, sanctification, and baptism in the Holy Spirit with tongues as the sign of redemption for all believers (182-183).